SPECIAL ISSUE
Development and assessment of protective winter covers
for marble statuaries of the Schlossbru¨cke, Berlin (Germany)
Joerg Ruedrich • York Rieffel • Stephan Pirskawetz • Holger Alpermann •
Ute Joksch • Christoph Gengnagel • Frank Weise • Rudolph Plagge •
Jianhua Zhao • Siegfried Siegesmund
Received: 25 May 2010 / Accepted: 26 September 2010 / Published online: 19 October 2010
 The Author(s) 2010. This article is published with open access at Springerlink.com
Abstract The present study documents the results of an
inter-disciplinary model project that was planned with the
aim of developing an innovative winter covering system
for marble statuaries located on the Schlossbru¨cke (Berlin).
Such a system would need to fulfil the various require-
ments for structural stability, aesthetics, climate and prac-
tical use. This applied research represents the first complex
scientific study of the sustainability of a winter covering
system. The study is characterised by the use of complex
scientific instruments such as special laboratory analysis
and numerical simulation tools. The interaction between
the environment and the artefacts in connection with the
innovative winter covering structures were studied by
extensive climatic monitoring.
Keywords Marble sculptures  Marble weathering 
Winter cover  Climate data  Numerical simulations
Introduction
The ‘‘Schlossbru¨cke’’, with its monumental sculptural
groups made of Carrara marble, is situated in the centre of
Berlin on the edge of the Museum Island, a UNESCO
world cultural heritage site (Fig. 1a). As a result of their
eventful history and exposure to the elements, these
sculptures now show considerable signs of damage. The
most significant deterioration is caused by thermally
induced microcrack formation, which is characteristic of
many marble types. For Carrara marbles this decay is
expressed as a penetrative granular disintegration. Pro-
gressive fabric decohesion leads to a sugar-like crumbling
of isolated calcite crystals on the sculpture surfaces. A
subordinate relief structure can be observed, which is
caused by chemical solution processes close to the surface.
In spite of numerous restoration attempts, significant dirt is
still observable on the figures. This probably results from
the high traffic volume (32,000 vehicles per day) along the
boulevard Unter den Linden. Gaseous compounds, solid
dirt particles such as soot, fine particles, rubber particles
and microbiological colonisation are the main causes of the
soiling and the pollution on the surfaces of the statues.
Remedial action is essential and necessary for preserving
these high quality sculptures as a historical ensemble.
On the Schlossbru¨cke the Carrara marble is a particularly
vulnerable material, which needs constant maintenance and
care to ensure its long-term preservation in an outdoor set-
ting. Because of their outstanding artistic, historical and
urban design value, the continuous care of the sculptures on
‘‘Unter den Linden’’ is a central concern for conservators.
Therefore, the Berlin Federal State Monument Conservation
Authority has developed an inspection and maintenance
concept, which has been implemented since 2009 and is the
only such programme of its size in Germany.
J. Ruedrich (&)  S. Siegesmund
Geoscience Centre of the University Go¨ttingen,
Goldschmidtstr. 3, 37077 Go¨ttingen, Germany
e-mail: joerg.ruedrich@geo.uni-goettingen.de
Y. Rieffel  U. Joksch
Landesdenkmalamt Berlin, Klosterstraße 47,
10179 Berlin, Germany
S. Pirskawetz  F. Weise
Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing,
Unter den Eichen 87, 12205 Berlin, Germany
H. Alpermann  C. Gengnagel
Universita¨t der Ku¨nste Berlin, Hardenbergstraße 33,
10623 Berlin, Germany
R. Plagge  J. Zhao
University of Technology Dresden, Institute of Building
Climatology, Zellescher Weg 17, 01069 Dresden, Germany
123
Environ Earth Sci (2011) 63:1823–1848
DOI 10.1007/s12665-010-0765-2
The conservation programme involves covering the
Schlossbru¨cke sculptures during the winter months.
Empirical findings show that even a traditional wooden
cover reduces the damage to the sculptures. No scientific
study has been done on the weather-dependent moisture
penetration and the climatic conditions in such protective
enclosures or on the damages to marbles related to the effect
of weathering processes. The bridge sculptures represent a
special situation, since they are positioned on the bridge
edges with exposure to the flowing water below. Presently
no research has taken such a situation into account.
This is compounded by the additional goal of making
the marble sculptures on the Schlossbru¨cke visible to
pedestrians even during the winter. Scientific studies are
non-existent in regards to the protective effect of known
enclosure systems covering such sculptures. Furthermore,
the complicated structural requirement for covers situated
on a bridge necessitates new design concepts.
The inter-disciplinary model project focuses on the
following main steps:
• Determining the ‘‘state of the art’’ for winter covers in a
national and international context
• Defining the requirement profile for an innovative
temporary winter cover
• Analysing the present condition and the material
characteristics of the bridge sculptures
• Measuring the climatic conditions
• Determining the hygrothermal material properties of
natural stone and membranes
• Comparative monitoring of the microclimate for the
sculptures when exposed to the elements and when
protected by temporary wooden covers and the newly
designed winter covers
• Development of an innovative winter cover, which is
suitable for monument conservation
• Weathering simulation to test the effectiveness of
winter covers
• Development of a prototype
History of the structure and phases of restoration
The Schlossbru¨cke was constructed between 1822 and
1824 in the classical style according to a design by Karl
Friedrich Schinkel. Artistically, this is the most beautiful
bridge in the city of Berlin (Fig. 1a). The sculpture
assemblage was built from 1842 to 1857 and consists of
eight groups of figures constructed of Carrara marble by
sculptors from the Schadow and Rauch School (Fig. 1b–e).
These sculptures, such as the goddesses of antiquity (Nike
and Athena) with young heroes were also a part of the
design plans of Schinkel. High pedestals of red granite
were constructed on the stone pillars of the bridge and
serve as the base for the larger-than-life sculptures.
Between the pedestals there are wrought iron railings
decorated with sea horses, tritons and dolphins. The bridge
figures made of Carrara marble is reminiscent of the
Angels Bridge in Rome, and represents an outstanding
example of the world famous 19th century Berlin sculp-
tural school. At that time, sculptures were seen as an
important ‘‘official’’ art form, which fulfilled a purpose that
was in the public interest. The designers wanted to provide
Fig. 1 Schlossbru¨cke, Unter
den Linden/Berlin: a Marble
statuary ensemble on the
southern side; b Sculpture group
1 ‘‘Nike educates the boy in
history’’ by Emil Wolff, 1847;
c Sculpture group 2 ‘‘Athena
teaches the young man how to
use a weapon’’ by Hermann
Schievelbein, 1853; d Sculpture
group 3 ‘‘Athena arms the
warrior’’ by Karl Heinrich
Mo¨ller, 1851 and e Sculpture
group 4 ‘‘Nike crowns the hero’’
by Friedrich Drake, 1853
1824 Environ Earth Sci (2011) 63:1823–1848
123
an everlasting monument to what was noteworthy and
noble (Bloch and Grzimek 1978). The figures on the
Schlossbru¨cke, with their noble-mindedness and their
striving for mythological ideals, were among the most
sophisticated sculptural ensembles created in the 19th
century. Schinkel wrote about his concept: ‘‘The subject
requires much time to implement and a great deal of
thought, because the aesthetic quality is the main purpose
here’’ (Rave 1948).
The Schlossbru¨cke over the Spree Canal provides a
traffic link between Unter den Linden—the most important
east–west artery in the city centre—and the Lustgarten
(Pleasure Garden) and the former Berlin Palace. The
Schlossbru¨cke was a counterpart to the Brandenburg Gate
in the west and formed the eastern end of the boulevard
Unter den Linden, as well as a point of transition to the
most important square in the city, the Schlossplatz in front
of the former palace. The bridge, with its monumental
groups of figures, is a major element of the sculptural
programme designed by Schinkel and Rauch. Together
with the statues of General Scharnhorst and General Bu¨low
in front of and opposite the Neue Wache memorial, they
formed part of the city’s main street, which was designed
as a victory road or ‘‘Via Triumphalis’’ in a decade long
concept, which was unrivalled in Europe. Today, they line
a busy inner city street which attracts many tourists, and is
a major traffic artery and forms part of the buffer zone
around the Museum Island. This circumstance, i.e. the
location of the bridge in the city centre and the fact that it
has been in the public focus since it was built, is the main
reason why the sculpted figures have experienced such a
turbulent history and a variety of restoration phases.
Directly after the sculptures were assembled in 1855 and
1860, they were treated with a coating of soluble glass as a
preventive measure against air pollution. For the same
reason, the figures were treated with an emulsion wash
roughly every 3 years until 1916. From 1881 to 1891 they
were cleaned regularly with Venetian soap (saponified
olive oil). As early as 1868, critical remarks were made
about the soluble glass coating in correspondences between
official bodies, noting that ‘‘in the denser marble statues
such as the statues on the Schlossbru¨cke soluble glass
cannot penetrate the surface, so it cannot have any effect’’.
The sculptures were made of the ‘‘best second grade
Carrara marble (Ravacione)’’. Already in 1877, the marbles
showed ‘‘the unfavourable effects of the climate’’ due to
the air pollution in the city centre (Goralczyk et al. 1988).
Therefore, in 1892 it was recommended that the sculptures
be replaced by bronze figures (Springer 1981). Up to 1943
no further work on the figures is documented, and a com-
parison of historical photographs shows that regular
cleaning and care of the statues was no longer carried out.
The condition of the figures deteriorated progressively, and
in places they were distinctly blackened. In 1943, the
sculptures were disassembled to protect them from war
damage, and they were stored in wooden coverings at
various locations in the western part of the city. The poor
storage conditions up to 1969 led to a drastic deterioration
in the condition of the sculptures, with parts broken off. At
the end of the 1960s, the sculptures were reassembled again
and the missing parts were replaced. From 1978, they were
stored in a ‘‘lapidarium’’. After the sculptures were
returned from West Berlin to the GDR in 1981, compre-
hensive scientific studies were carried out on the figures for
the first time (Goralczyk 1984). In the subsequent resto-
ration, the sculptures were cleaned, small missing parts
were replaced with a polyester resin, and then reinforced
with silicone resin and treated hydrophobically (Goralczyk
et al. 1988). A year after they had been erected at the
original location in 1983/84, they were again subjected to
partial hydrophobic treatment (Goralczyk et al. 1988). In
the course of the planned restoration work in 1992/93, the
polyester resin was found to be brittle, and in places there
was a distinct lattice of cracks in the marble surface. The
silicone resin coating was removed abrasively by micro-
blasting, and the cracks were partly sealed with epoxy
resin. According to the restoration report, the sculptures
were also coated with a solution of Paraloid B72, and
several coats were applied in the most porous places.
The restoration that began in 2007 was based on a
minimal intervention concept. Previous measures were
taken into account as far as possible and focused on the
compatibility of the processes and the choice of conserving
agents.
A review of the history of the Schlossbru¨cke figures
shows that in the 19th century, the normal practice was
already in use for preventing the deterioration of the
sculptures by regular cleaning and care, not only with
chemical substances. However, this preventive work to
preserve the substance of the sculptures was carried out less
and less in the 20th century. In view of the many problems
associated with the use of chemical conservation agents,
especially in the preservation of natural stone, preventive
conservation is becoming increasingly important today.
This is especially true when significant cost-savings are
taken into consideration. Trend-setting examples can be
found throughout Europe (Castelli 1997; Accardo et al.
2003), which would be worth copying for the many
historically valuable statuaries in Germany.
State of the art winter covers for monuments
Protective structures for works of art or antique artefacts
have a long architectural tradition and have been known in
Germany since the 19th century. The archives in the
Environ Earth Sci (2011) 63:1823–1848 1825
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Clemenswerth Hunting Palace (Lower Saxony) show that
the stone sculptures, which form part of the structure of the
central building were protected by canvas strips as early as
1832. Moreover, winter covers are also documented during
the 19th century for the sculptures in the Tiergarten in
Berlin and at the Prussian Cultural Trust. The initial
motivation for temporary winter covers was primarily to
protect cultural works against weathering processes and air
pollutants. Very few meaningful microclimate measure-
ments are available that relate mainly to sculptural works,
which are firmly attached to the building. However, they do
show that winter protection covers delay temperature
equalisation, and thus reduce the critical peak values for
temperature and condensation (Berry 2005; Blum 2002;
Egloffstein and Franz 2005; Wo¨lbert 2005).
The known winter cover systems can be classified as
follows: (i) wooden structures, (ii) frame and membrane
(textile/plastic sheeting), (iii) wrapping without a frame,
with or without spacers, (iv) acrylic glass or polycarbonate
glass and (v) individual structures made of different
materials (Fig. 2). Traditional wooden winter covers are
known to be one of the oldest methods of winter protection.
The technical solutions range from primitive casings
without any defined ventilation or a ground anchoring
mechanism to technically sophisticated and proven models.
More recently, frames made of standard framework mod-
ules have also been used and covered with membranes,
usually PVC-coated polyester fabric; these coverings are
mainly experimental in character (Blum 2002).
Directly covering the monuments with an (un)coated
fabric, membranes or textiles is a development of the last
13 years. In 1999, at the Institute of Textile and Clothing
Technology of the Technical University of Dresden, a
winter cover of polyester fabric combined with Teflon was
developed (Roedel 2005). Foam spacer elements are
attached, which are directly mounted on the artefact and
fixed to the building by Velcro fasteners. This system is
now used in Saxony and Austria (e.g. Moritzburg Palace,
Scho¨nbrunn Palace, Vienna).
A covering known as Tyvek is used in the Versailles
Palace gardens, Hampton Court Palace in England, the
Indianapolis Museum of Art and other places. The material
is a paper fleece fibre textile made of thermally-bonded
fibres of high-density polyethylene (HDPE). Mechanically,
the covering has paper-like characteristics and is not suit-
able for use as a load-bearing membrane. However,
according to the manufacturer (DuPont), the permeability
is good in regards to water vapour.
Between 1997 and 2003, a research project (Blum 2002)
dealt with winter coverings for monuments of natural
stone. The aim of the project was to develop a light-weight
cover, which would be easy to assemble and visually
attractive. The study focused on the palaces of Cle-
menswerth (Lower Saxony) and Weikersheim (Baden-
Wu¨rtemberg). During the research programme ‘‘Assessing
the performance of protective winter covers for outdoor
marble statuary—pilot investigation’’ (Berry 2005), vari-
ous membranes were tested, such as Tyvek, polyurethane-
coated nylon and polyester fabric with and without
polyester insulation as well as a proprietary development
consisting of three layers with insulation (Cliveden Winter
Cover).
Fig. 2 Different covering
systems: a Rheinsberg Castle,
typical wood board covering,
which has been used in this
form since 1930 by the Prussian
Palaces and Gardens
Foundation; b, c Moritzburg
Palace, winter protection with a
textile covering of polyester
fabric and Teflon; d Salzburg,
horse trough with polycarbonate
winter cover
1826 Environ Earth Sci (2011) 63:1823–1848
123
Structures made of acrylic glass or polycarbonate glass
are mainly used for prominent objects to ensure that they
remain visible during the winter months. Sunlight enters
the structures almost unhindered. This means that the light
not only shines on one side of the object, but also that a
greenhouse effect is created, which leads to increased
condensation and a lack of ventilation. Therefore, these
covers are detrimental to the natural stone.
In 2009, a patented multi-layer light-weight housing was
developed with walls manufactured as a sandwich structure
(Schmidt 2009, 2010). The inner layer consists of foam; the
outer layer is made of fabric-reinforced plastic with a UV
protective coating (http://www.ciccum.de/ciccum1.htm).
At present, no systematic scientific study has been under-
taken on the effects of the different covering systems and
the associated effects on the weathering processes for
marble.
Marble and its state of preservation
Macroscopic damage phenomenon
Due to their long exposition time and diverse history, the
marble sculptures show various types of decay phenome-
non (Fig. 3). The macroscopic damages are characterised
by a few replacements of filigree body parts, e.g. substi-
tutions for fingers, hands, wing parts, etc. Moreover, the
original marble locally shows a pronounced surface
roughness, which can be traced back to chemical solution
processes. Sporadically, a sugar-like crumbling can be
observed. In these parts, the marble fabric is strongly
deteriorated (Fig. 4a). However, in most cases the back-
weathering is moderate. Only one sculpture group repre-
sents an exception. For this marble sculpture group,
networking cracks like a craquelling can be observed. In
areas of strong fabric decay, macrocracks and material
break-outs are also common. Most of the damages can be
traced back to marble weathering. Mechanical damages are
also common, which can be traced to the incorrect trans-
port and storage during and after the confusion generated
by World War II.
Marble weathering
Thermal dilatation processes are responsible for the initial
degradation of marbles. Kessler (1919) found that repeated
heating of marbles may lead to permanent dilatations due
to microfracturing (Fig. 4b, c) and that thermally treated
marbles show a remarkable non-reversible change in length
especially during the first heating cycle (Zezza et al. 1985;
Sage 1988; Siegesmund et al. 2000). Even small temper-
ature changes of 20–50C may result in damage (Battaglia
et al. 1993). Marble has a very simple mineralogical
composition. It consists of calcite and/or dolomite with
other accessory phases (e.g. quartz, mica, etc.). Calcite
and dolomite exhibit a pronounced anisotropy of the ther-
mal expansion coefficient at different crystallographic
Fig. 3 Main macroscopic
damage phenomenon:
a intensive cracking,
b replacements, c complex
cracking with break-outs and
d new distinct crack growth
starting from an older
replacement
Environ Earth Sci (2011) 63:1823–1848 1827
123
directions (Kleber 1959) leading to stresses within the
sample during heating (Fig. 5a–d). When these stresses
exceed the threshold of cohesion, a thermally induced
deterioration is observed (cf. Sage 1988; Weiss et al. 2002,
2004). The rock fabric, which includes grain size, grain
aspect ratios, grain shape preferred orientation, lattice
preferred orientation (texture) and the microcrack popula-
tions, significantly controls the material’s behaviour during
thermal stress (e.g. Siegesmund et al. 2008; Shushakova
et al. 2010).
The increase of residual strain and thus the progressive
deterioration of marbles stops after a few heating cycles
if moisture is absent (e.g. Sage 1988 or Koch and Sieges-
mund 2004). Therefore, Winkler (1996) pointed out the
importance of moisture in the weathering process of marbles.
Detailed measurements of progressive residual strain on
Carrara marbles were performed by Koch and Siegesmund
(2004). Five dry cycles up to 90C were followed by
additional wet cycles on drilling cores with a sample size of
[15 mm 9 50 mm. The wet cycles were carried out in
such a way that at the end of the heating stage, the samples
in the climate chamber were run until totally dry. The result
was an increasing residual strain, which did not stop during
the experiments (Fig. 5e). This thermo-hygric process
results in progressive crack opening (Siegesmund et al.
2007, 2008).
To acquire more information about the deterioration by
cooling, comparable Carrara samples were treated in the
following way. Four dry cooling cycles up to -14C were
followed by 10 additional wet cycles in drilling cores with
Fig. 4 Microphotographs of
deteriorated Carrara marble:
a CT-image of a drill core
shows the strong microcrack
deterioration parallel to the
surface (sample from figure
group 4); b, c SEM-images
(fractography) shows the
penetrative granular
disintegration along grain
boundaries of the calcite single
crystals (reference sample)
Fig. 5 Marble deterioration: a Thermal dilatation coefficients of the
calcite single crystal with respect to the crystallographic orientations,
b schematic illustration of a calcite crystal at initial conditions,
c volume change by heating and d by cooling, e progressive residual
strain under dry and following wet conditions induced by heating and
f by cooling measurements
1828 Environ Earth Sci (2011) 63:1823–1848
123
the same sample size. For the first dry cooling cycle a
strong residual strain also occurs (Fig. 5f). In the experi-
ment the residual strength is the half compared to heating.
But also the absolute temperature difference was the half.
Thus, in the initial dry thermal deterioration the residual
strain is a function of the absolute temperature difference.
For the further dry loading cycles a slight increase of
residual strain is detectable, which is also comparable to
the heating situation. In contrast to the dry behaviour, the
cooling of wet samples only shows a slight increase of
residual strain. This implies that for the investigated sam-
ples freeze–thaw action only plays a secondary part. Other
experiments have shown that if cracks are open to a certain
extent, the capillary water uptake increases and weathering
processes like chemical solution or freeze–thaw action
plays a more important role for marble decay (Ondrasina
et al. 2002; Ruedrich 2003).
Rock fabrics
The samples for fabric and petrophysical investigations
were drilled from sculpture 2 and 3 on the south side of the
bridge. Drill cores from both sculptures with a diameter of
40 mm were obtained from the plinth.
The macroscopic fabrics of the marbles are more or less
characteristic for Carrara material. They are bright white in
colour and contain irregular dark grey veins. The veins are
folded and show a streak-like distortion. They usually
range in width from 0.3 to 1.0 cm. A preferred orientation
of the veins is not clearly detectable. The samples show a
medium decay in the form of granular disintegration.
The investigated Carrara marbles show a nearly equi-
granular polygonal grain fabric (Fig. 6a, d) with straight
grain boundaries and frequently 120 triple-point junctions.
The grain size in the white areas is between 20 and
600 lm, whereas the maximum is about 180 lm (Fig. 6b,
e). In the XY- and the XZ-plane of the samples, a preferred
grain boundary orientation (subparallel Y-direction) can be
observed (Fig. 6c, f).
The grey veins are fine grained (average grain
size = 50 lm) and the grains have a very strong undulose
extinction. Grain boundaries are interlobated and a high
amount of fluid inclusions or graphite occurs, which
probably causes the grey colour of the veins.
Pore space properties
The porosity and pore radii distributions were analysed in
order to obtain more information about the preservation
state of the marbles. Hydrostatic weighing was used to
measure the porosity. Both samples show an effective
porosity of about 0.5 vol% (Fig. 7). In comparison with
fresh marbles which show porosities around 0.2 vol% (e.g.
Weiss et al. 2000), the pore space volume is significantly
enlarged.
The pore size distribution of the samples was deter-
mined by using mercury porosimetry (cf. van Brakel et al.
1981). The pattern of the pore radii spectrum exhibit
for both investigated marbles an unequal porous bimodal
distribution of pore sizes (Fig. 7). The main maximum is
marginally below 0.01 lm, and thus in the domain of mi-
cropores where no capillary activity is present. In contrast,
Fig. 6 Fabric properties of the
investigated marbles: a, d grain
fabric; b, e grain size and c,
f preferred orientation of grain
boundaries, a–c drilling core 1
(sculpture 2) and d–f drilling
core 4 (sculpture 3)
Environ Earth Sci (2011) 63:1823–1848 1829
123
the second sub-maximum is about 0.1 lm, and therefore in
the pore space range of capillary soaking. In the present
state of preservation, the capillary water uptake is assumed
to be relatively low (cf. Ruedrich 2003). With progressive
crack opening caused by further weathering, the water
uptake should also increase, and thus the chemical solution
at the internal surfaces of the marbles will increase.
Magnitude of fabric disintegration
Ultrasonic velocities were increasingly used as a non-
destructive tool for assessing the structural disintegration
of the marbles. The basic principle is that the decrease of
compressional waves (Vp) is correlated with progressive
crack growth during weathering. Ko¨hler (1991) presented a
Vp damage classification (Table 1) based on numerous
measurements at sculptures made of Carrara marble. In
order to analyse the fabric cohesion, the Vp was measured
in the drill cores. The transient times of ultrasonic pulses
(piezoceramic transducers, resonant frequency of 350 kHz,
point coupling) were measured using the transmission
technique (Birch 1960, 1961). The measurements were
carried out in two directions (X,Y) perpendicular to the
length axis of the drill core. To simulate the field condition
the analysis was performed under dry and completely
water-saturated sample conditions. The measuring points
were defined for different distances along a depth profile
(Fig. 8) in order to obtain information about the preser-
vation state from the surface to the rocks interior.
The measured ultrasonic velocities at dry sample con-
ditions are between 3.25 and 4.50 km/s (Fig. 8a, b). The
mean value is around 3.90 km/s, which can be designated
as increasingly porous after the classification by Ko¨hler
(1991). At water-saturated conditions, Vp varies between
5.80 and 6.60 km/s and are characteristic for Carrara
marbles (Fig. 8a, b). Water-saturated weathered marbles
are known to show nearly the same Vp properties as the
original values with fresh conditions (e.g. Weiss et al.
2000; Siegesmund et al. 2009).
The Vp distribution along the depth profile at dry sample
conditions for drill core 2 exhibits conspicuous changes.
Near the surface, a relatively high Vp of 4.75 km/s is
detectable. At about 17 mm, depth Vp is strongly reduced
to 3.60 km/s and increases with depth up to 4.00 km/s. The
same pattern can be determined for the second drill core
but the Vp changes are less pronounced. Commonly Vp
should be the lowest near the surface because weathering
intensity is highest at the surface. This indicates a sec-
ondary fabric stabilisation of areas close to the surface. The
cause could be chemical solution/precipitation reactions or
former consolidation works.
Compressional wave velocities during the drying
experiments are given in Fig. 8c, d. The results show a
strong correlation between water saturation degree of the
marble pore space and the compressional wave velocities.
Beneath a saturation degree of about 40%, the influence of
water on Vp is strongly reduced.
Ultrasonic tomography (on-site analysis)
To detect the damage of the rocks interior, detailed two-
dimensional tomographic investigations with ultrasound
(250 kHz) were carried out on-site. The results of sculpture
group 3 are given in Fig. 9. Measuring points are defined in
order to achieve a tight grid of measuring tracks for each
profile (Fig. 9a–c). The analyses were carried out at three
different horizontal slices at the shoulder (profile I), the
thigh (profile II) and the shackle (profile III) of the warrior.
For better signal transmission, a special clay was used
between the transmitter and the marble. The calculations of
the tomographic inversions were compiled with the pro-
gramme Migratom (cf. Jackson and Tweeton 1994; Rued-
rich et al. 2001; Siegesmund et al. 2009).
Fig. 7 Pore radii distribution of
a sample from sculpture 2 and
b sculpture 3
Table 1 Structural damage classification on the basis of Vp for
marble from Ko¨hler (1991)
Damage class Vp (km/s) Condition Porosity (vol%)
Class 0 [5.0 Fresh \0.5
Class I 3.0–5.0 Increasingly porous 1.3–0.5
Class II 2.0–3.0 Sugar-like disintegration 3.0–1.3
Class III 1.5–2.0 Fragile 5.3–3.0
Class IV \1.5 Crumbling rock [5
1830 Environ Earth Sci (2011) 63:1823–1848
123
For the chosen example the ultrasonic velocities in the
tomographic profiles vary between 2.0 and 4.1 km/s. The
lowest velocities are observable for profile III between 2.0
and 2.8 km/s. This indicates that the smaller sculpture parts
are strongly deteriorated than the voluminous parts, and is
in agreement with the macroscopic damage observations.
The velocity distribution patterns are different for all
profiles (Fig. 9d–f). For profile I and III, the areas of lower
velocity are exposition-controlled. More deteriorated parts
are non-protected by other sculpture parts, and thus subjected
to stronger weathering. Profile III shows a low velocity
channel from southeast to northwest. Since the Vp differences
are low, this velocity pattern may only be affected by the
marble anisotropy. Ruedrich (2003) found an increasing Vp
anisotropy up to 30% for Carrara marbles with progressive
fabric decay. Comparable ultrasonic velocities in intensity as
well as in its distribution pattern are observable for all
sculpture groups of the Schlossbru¨cke.
Acquisition of the climatic conditions
with or without a covering
Although the protection of art works by winter covers has a
long tradition, there are only a few studies documenting the
effect of such covers (Berry 2005; Blum 2002; Egloffstein
and Franz 2005; Wo¨lbert 2005). Therefore, the climate
monitoring system was designed to create a dense database
for the numerical prediction of the effect of protective
systems, and to compare the given climate conditions to the
known factors influencing the marble deterioration.
In December 2007, the climate monitoring system
started operation in order to study the influence of the
microclimate on marble sculptures on the Schlossbru¨cke
in Berlin. The first system was installed at sculpture 2
(Fig. 1), followed in 2008 by two systems each at
sculptures 1 and 3. General local climate data like air
temperature, relative humidity, wind speed and global
radiation as well as surface temperatures and surface
humidity at the sculptures are measured and stored every
15 min. In December 2008, additional marble reference
samples with integrated temperature sensors were
attached directly to the sculptures. Temperature distri-
butions can thus be collected inside a marble without
damaging the sculptures.
The monitoring system has been designed for long-term
operation and is still being maintained. Combined with the
hygric and thermal characteristics of the marble, the mea-
sured data are a valuable foundation for simulating the
effectiveness of different protection systems.
Fig. 8 a, b Ultrasonic wave
velocities (Vp) of drilling core 1
(sculpture group 2) and 4
(sculpture group 3) in a depth
profile at dry and water-
saturated conditions. c,
d Correlation between Vp and
water saturation, e drill cores
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Effect of the local climate on weathered sculptures
The recording of the local climatic conditions on the
Schlossbru¨cke comprise more than 2 years of data. Figure 10
shows the air temperatures measured during this time span.
To verify the reliability of the data, they have been compared
to data from the weather station Berlin–Tempelhof, which is
operated by the German Meteorological Service (2010). This
comparison shows a good correlation but the temperatures
measured on the Schlossbru¨cke tend to be little higher than
the temperatures at Tempelhof. Especially the lowest tem-
peratures at Tempelhof are lower than the lowest tempera-
tures on the Schlossbru¨cke. The reason is a distinctive
microclimate in the high-density area of the city centre and
the special location over the river Spree. This is confirmed by
long-term averages of the temperatures in the period from
1961 to 1990 at both locations. In Tempelhof, the average
temperature ranges from 9 to 9.5C, whereas the average
temperature at the Schlossbru¨cke ranges from 10 to 10.5C.
The main wind direction is southwest.
The climate data recorded until now show that the
temperatures of the sculptures range from -20C in winter
up to 40C in summer. This represents a temperature span
of about 60C. In combination with wet and dry cycles, this
may cause marble deterioration. The temperature of the
sculptures is determined by the temperature of the sur-
rounding air and by the global radiation. The humidity of
the material depends on the relative humidity of the air. In
addition, the infiltration of liquid water from rain or dew
increases the humidity of the materials.
The influence of direct sunlight on the surface temper-
ature of the marble can be verified by comparing the
Fig. 9 Tomographic
reconstruction of three profiles
for sculpture group 3:
a–c transmitter/receiver
positions and associated ray
paths, d–f tomographic
inversions
1832 Environ Earth Sci (2011) 63:1823–1848
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temperatures of the massive parts of the sculptures on the
south and north side. Figures 11a and 12a show examples
for measured surface temperatures on sculpture 2 in com-
parison to the air temperature. In winter, the highest tem-
peratures were measured on the south side of the
sculptures, where the influence of direct solar radiation is
the highest. In the period shown in Fig. 12a, the differences
of the surface temperatures on the north and on the south
side of the unprotected sculpture are lower than 4C.
Without direct solar radiation, no temperature difference
can be seen. Moreover, the increase of the surface tem-
perature by solar radiation in the summer is not very high.
In the period investigated, the highest temperatures were
measured on the west side. The maximum temperature
difference between the north and the south side is below
6C. The maximum surface temperature difference since
the beginning of the measurements is below 10C.
The main reason for the low influence of direct solar
radiation on surface temperature is the high reflectivity of
the bright marble. A further reason could be a relatively
high thermal conductivity and the high density of the
material. The heat which develops on the surface is
transferred and spread inside the material.
The most interesting observation of solar radiation and
temperature occurred on the 3rd of July 2008. The air
temperature on this sunny day as well as the surface tem-
perature increased from about 20C in the morning to about
30C in the afternoon. At the same time, the surface tem-
perature on the west side increased from 20 to 35C.
Around 12:30 pm, overcast conditions occur for 1 h, and
therefore the surface temperature on the west side tempo-
rarily decreased to 30C. Beginning at 3:30 pm, the tem-
perature on the west side suddenly decreased to 27C
within 1 h. At the same time, the temperature on the north
side fell to 20C. The reason is a sudden rain shower. After
the rain, the temperature again reached up to 30C and the
surfaces dried. Events like this are significant for marble
deterioration. On the afternoon of the 4th of July 2009 it
started raining again, but due to the temporarily overcast
condition, the temperature drop is less abrupt.
Figure 11a shows the temperature profile measured on a
reference sample with one exposed surface oriented to the
Fig. 10 Air temperature at the
Schlossbru¨cke Berlin during the
period of the project
Fig. 11 Influence of the
microclimate on the marble
temperatures in summer:
a temperatures measured at
sculpture group 2,
b temperatures in a depth profile
from a reference sample with
one exposed surface, c solar
radiation and rainfall and
d exposed reference sample
with temperature sensors at
different depths
Environ Earth Sci (2011) 63:1823–1848 1833
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southwest (Fig. 11d). The other surfaces of the reference
sample exhibit a heat insulation in order to evaluate the
thermal behaviour of massive sculpture parts. As expected,
the development of the surface temperature in general
equates to the temperature profile measured on the west
side of sculpture 2. Due to the high thermal conductivity of
the marble, the temperature at a depth of 1 cm follows the
surface temperature fast. Higher surface temperatures only
occur in times of direct solar radiation. In the period from
the 1st to 6th July 2009, the highest temperature difference
between the surface and the backside of the sample is about
5C (Fig. 11b). If the environmental temperatures rise, the
surface temperature is always the highest. The temperature
profile is inverted, if the ambient temperature drops.
Effect of the conventional wooden cover
during the winter
A wooden cover was erected in January 2008 around
sculpture 2 and it was removed in May 2008. The cover
was open below and it had wide vents under the roof.
Sculpture 1 wasn’t covered in this period. Figure 12 shows
a comparison of the microclimate on sculptures 1 and 2
during 5 days in March 2008. Due to the wide vents in the
wooden cover, the air temperature effect around the
sculpture is insignificant. However, the amplitudes of
the surface temperature are slightly lowered compared to
the temperatures on sculpture 1. Inside the cover, there is
no difference between the surface temperatures on the
south side and the west side of the sculpture. Furthermore,
inside the cover the surface temperatures follow the
ambient air temperature more slowly, and therefore a
temperature difference of up to 3C occurs. The reason
might be the reduced heat transfer due to the lower wind
speed. The dew point inside the cover during the period
shown in Fig. 12 is just a little lower than the surface
temperature. During the entire time when the sculpture was
protected, the surface temperatures fell below the dew
point for a period of 430 h. This equates to about 13% of
the 133 days when the sculpture was covered. At the same
time, precipitation occurred on 51 days. Unfortunately
during this time period, the dew point temperature outside
the cover was not being measured. It is probable, however,
that the effect of the wooden cover is limited as a protec-
tion against rainfall.
Effect of the modern cover with a PVC membrane
during the winter
Since February 2009, a steel framework with a white PVC
membrane has been erected around sculpture 1 and is still
being used on this figure. The area below the cover is open
and has no additional vents.
This protective cover shows a similar climatic effect in the
interior as the wooden cover. Surface temperatures on the
north and on the south sides show no difference, which is
similar to the interior climate of the wooden cover. This is
caused by the shadowing effect of the cover. During a sunlit
day, the air temperature inside the cover increases slightly. In
the winter, the weather station is in the shade cast by the
modern cover, and thus the solar radiation shown in Fig. 13c
does not represent the direct solar radiation. However, the data
from the DWD show that the 19th and 20th of December 2009
were both the days in which the sun shone in Berlin.
Fig. 12 Influence of climate
and the wooden cover on the
marble temperatures in winter
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123
Inside the membrane cover, the surface temperatures can
also fall below the dew point. In Fig. 13, these periods are
represented by the pale blue boxes. If the temperatures are
below the freezing point, this leads to hoarfrost on the sculp-
tures. Not until the temperatures rise above the freezing point
does the surface of the marble get wet. This occurred on the
morning of the 22nd of December 2009 as shown in Fig. 13.
The surface temperature is still below the dew point.
During the period from October 2009 to February 2010,
the surface temperature of the unprotected sculpture 2 is
below the dew point of the ambient air in an overall time
period of 960 h. This equates to about 27% of the entire
period of 147 days. Inside the modern cover, the surface
temperature of sculpture 1 is just 694 h below the dew
point. This equates to about 20% of the considered time.
Precipitation occurred on 63 days in this period.
The time of direct infiltration of water to the sculpture is
shortened by the modern cover, although an intensive air
exchange is possible through the opening below. In addi-
tion, moisture infiltration can be reduced by closing the
opening below the cover. Moreover, more dust accumu-
lates on the sculptures inside the cover than when the
sculptures are freely exposed. This is another important
reason for closing and sealing the cover completely.
Numerical simulation of microclimate
with or without a covering
Numerical simulation of heat and moisture transport phe-
nomena has become a widely accepted and commonly
applied investigation method (Galbraith 1992; Grunewald
1997; Kuenzel 1994). The application allows the evalua-
tion of possible environmental effects on resultant damage
processes to the marble sculptures. The analysis of the
climate inside the cover that affects the marble sculpture
requires the implementation of air transport induced by air
pressure differences. Bear and Bachmat (1991) give a
general physical and theoretical description of the ther-
modynamic principle. Grunewald (1997) introduced a
physical model of couplet Heat Air and Moisture transport
(HAM), which fulfils the simulation requirement and is
used in the present paper. The transport processes and
transmission between solid, liquid and gaseous phases are
given for a multiphase system in porous materials. The
actual code used for the simulations is called DELPHIN
5.6, as described in Nicolai et al. (2008a, b).
The accuracy and reliability of the numerical results
highly depends on the quality of the input data, and thus it
requires the setting of highly defined boundary conditions
(Hagentoft et al. 2004). Since the microclimate situation at
the marble sculptures with or without a covering has been
measured, the boundary conditions are also well known for
specific positions at the different sculptures.
Hygrothermal material properties of the investigated
Carrara marbles
The required hygrothermal material properties have been
analysed by laboratory techniques and are supported by a
few in situ measurements. The hygrothermal characterisa-
tion of the marble is a difficult task. Having a very
low porosity, moisture transport and moisture storage,
the determination of characteristic material parameters
Fig. 13 Influence of climate
and the cover with PCV
membrane on the marble
temperatures in winter. The pale
blue boxes represent periods
where the surface temperature
falls below the dew point
Environ Earth Sci (2011) 63:1823–1848 1835
123
becomes highly time consuming and requires high preci-
sion techniques and methods. A general description of the
experimental methods used is given by Plagge (2005,
2007). A selection of the basic hygrothermal material
properties, including the variation of a Carrara marble is
listed in Table 2.
The application of numerical simulation software
requires complete material functions, able to describe
vapour permeability, the liquid conductivity, both func-
tions of moisture content, and the moisture storage func-
tion, specifying the relationship between moisture content
and moisture potential. This leads to the task of material
modelling, which provides a set of material functions with
experimentally determined coefficients. The procedure
used is described by Scheffler and Plagge (2009).
Since a complete characterisation requires numerous
samples of different size, the valuable original Carrara
marble of the sculptures cannot be sampled in the required
amount. Based on mineralogical examinations, suitable
Carrara marble from the original quarry deposit in Italy has
been selected for measurement, representing the inner parts
of the sculptures. Only two specimens from a previous
sampling (see Fig. 8) could be used for experimental
analysis, representing the marble surface of the sculptures.
Due to climate induced deterioration, followed by some
previous conservation treatments, the marble surface shows
different physical properties. The hygrothermal material
properties of both marble types are shown in Fig. 14.
The results show remarkable differences between the
deteriorated parts of the marble sculpture and the fresh
marble sample. The comparison of sorption isotherm and
moisture retention indicates an increase of large pores for
the weathered marble, whereas the quantity of small pores
decreases from 0.0075 to 0.0020 m3/m3 by 75%. The
increase of moisture transport of around 80% relative
humidity can be explained by perfect penetrative granular
disintegration along the grain boundaries of planar pores in
the calcite crystals. The improvement shows a *50 times
greater transport rate. The increase of large pores from
0.004 to 0.008 m3/m3 leads to a higher moisture transport
rate, which is *103–104 times greater at a higher degree of
saturation. Water vapour permeability increases by 15%.
Simulation of free exposed sculptures
Due to the complex geometry of an original sculpture, it is
not possible to simulate all the details. The calculation
effort would be too large. Thus, the sculpture is represented
by the massive torso and the strong legs. The arms and
head show smaller diameters and have a more complex
geometry. The idealised shape of a sculpture is depicted in
Fig. 15.
Figure 16 shows the results for an exposed marble
sculpture, where the yearly fluctuation of climatic con-
ditions influences the hygric status of the marble. The
data are given for the 15th of each respective month.
During the spring and summer seasons, dry conditions
dominate. After the duration of a long drying period (see
May), the surface layer has dried. Occasional precipita-
tion leads to periodic wetting of the surface regions, but
moisture can continuously evaporate. The intensity of the
rainfall and humidity causes the moisture to penetrate
into the marble at a certain depth, which fluctuates
between a few mm up to 35 mm. During the colder sea-
sons in autumn and winter, the sculpture is dominantly
wetted, leading to higher moisture contents and an
increasing penetration depth.
Large differences also exist between different marble
thicknesses. Thinner parts of the sculpture, like the
extremities, show regular water saturation, whereas the
massive body never gets fully moistened. During colder
periods, drying conditions are poor whereby moisture can
penetrate the marble sculpture up to a depth of 200 mm.
Since marble has a large thermal conductivity, the
transmission of temperature is quite fast. The simulation
results indicate that the outer temperature conditions can
easily penetrate the marble. Thus, nearly all marble sur-
faces show the same temperature behaviour. The surface
temperature is independent from the diameter of the
sculpture geometry. Only at greater depths within the
sculpture, daily or weekly changes of temperature are
observable. The temperature difference between the outer
layer and the core marble never exceeds a maximum of
8C. For the actual cases, the temperature differs between 2
and 4C.
Table 2 Basic hygrothermal
material parameters of Carrara
marble (total sampling
collective n = 125 specimen)
Parameter Symbol Unit Mean Std Dev Min Max
Bulk density q kg/m3 2,614 17.5 2,515 2,644
Specific heat capacity c J/kgK 728 18.8 687.9 766.7
Thermal conductivity kdry W/mK 2.27 0.103 2.03 2.49
Total porosity Opor m3/m3 0.0137 0.0066 0.0024 0.0509
Capillary saturation Ocap m3/m3 0.0101 0.0023 0.0085 0.0117
Water uptake coefficient Aw kg/m2s05 0.0015 0.00028 0.0013 0.0017
Water vapour diffusion ldry – 353 243 75 737
1836 Environ Earth Sci (2011) 63:1823–1848
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Simulation of wooden shelter as a protective winter
cover
When developing a new and innovative covering system, it
is important to evaluate conventional and multiple used
systems. In this respect, two wooden winter covers were
compared:
1. an airtight design with reduced air circulation and
2. an air-ventilated design with defined openings at the
bottom and top of the housing.
To simulate air circulation within the housing around the
marble sculpture, different air exchange rates are used. The
velocity of air movement is defined by the pressure dif-
ference between upper und lower openings. In the present
paper, the differences in pressure used to lie between 0.5
and 5.0 Pa. When wind blows around the protective shelter
chimney effects are created, where air passing the upper
opening generates air suction through the lower opening. In
this manner, air is continuously flowing along the marble
sculpture (see Fig. 17). The pressure between the upper and
lower entry varies between 0.5 and 5.0 Pa.
In Figs. 18 and 19, different wooden winter covers are
compared. To understand the operation of the wooden
shelter on the marble sculpture, the mean moisture content
of the statue is shown. Relatively airtight constructions lead
Fig. 14 Hygrothermal material
property function on samples of
Carrara marble and the
sculpture
Fig. 15 Idealised simulation scheme of a marble sculpture
Environ Earth Sci (2011) 63:1823–1848 1837
123
to smaller moisture contents in the marble. Assuming
hygric and thermal dilatation is proportional to the ampli-
tude of moisture and temperature, the relatively airtight
wooden shelter is preferred. The variation of moisture for
non- and low-circulating systems is 3–5 kg moisture,
whereas air-ventilated systems deliver a variation of
2–7 kg. The daily amplitudes are much larger, leading to
substantial dilatation in the marble. In spring time, the
daily fluctuations are extreme. During sunny days, warm
outside air is laden with moisture and passes over the cold
sculpture. This results in surface condensation and a
moistening of the marble. Since the conditions for con-
densation have a long duration, the moistening is a domi-
nant process in February and March.
In the case of an airtight and non-ventilated shelter, only
little moisture enters the protective winter cover. Increas-
ing temperature within the shelter leads to a decrease of
relative humidity in the air allowing the marble to dry. Not
every wooden shelter is beneficial, as this investigation has
shown.
Fig. 16 Moisture distribution
within the idealised sculpture
influenced by climatic
conditions during the year
Fig. 17 Simulation scheme of the idealised sculpture having a
wooden shelter as a protective winter cover. The air ventilation
openings can be opened and closed
Fig. 18 Total moisture content of the idealised marble sculpture
having wooden protective winter covers. Comparison of an airtight
and an open winter cover system with ventilation
1838 Environ Earth Sci (2011) 63:1823–1848
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Simulation of membrane winter covers
The requirement profile for a sculpture adapted cover has
been defined in the project. The central aspects are light-
weight, durability, easy construction, simple transport and
storage (cf. Will 2009). In view of all the requirements,
different cover materials, e.g. glass, acryl, plastics and
membranes have been analysed. Based on these investi-
gations, membrane systems were selected because they
fulfil most requirements. From various possible membrane
systems, a moisture adaptive system has been chosen. All
simulation results have been carried out using this mem-
brane type.
Three simulations for different winter covers utilising a
membrane system are given below. The different systems
compared are:
1. an airtight membrane design
2. a diffusion open membrane design, allowing air
ventilation only from a basal opening
3. a diffusion open membrane design, with defined
openings at the bottom and top of the shelter allowing
air ventilation of 1 and 5 Pa circulation rates
Figure 20 presents the relative humidity of the airtight
membrane design and a diffusion open design with a
ventilation rate of 5 Pa. The results are shown for 3 days,
December 15th, February 1st and March 15th. The com-
parison shows that the airtight solution has the lowest
moisture content than the ventilated case. Analogous to the
wooden shelter, surface condensation leads to higher
moisture levels in the marble. An increasing ventilation
rate results in a higher moisture content, as presented in
Fig. 21. At the end of March both systems show compa-
rable results, since enough drying potential exists, but the
system stays sensitive. As far as surface condensation is
concerned, moisture content in the marble will increase.
Figure 21a compares the membrane shelters using the
mean moisture content in the marble sculpture. The dis-
tribution of moisture within the sculpture is very relevant,
since the dynamic course influences the damage processes
and the intensity of damage depends on the amplitude of
state variables. A comparison of the relative humidity on
the sculpture torso surface at different ventilation rates is
shown in Fig. 21b. The ventilation rate leads to a different
behaviour, since it is dependent on the outer climatic
conditions. Drying conditions are present, if the cold and
dry outside air is combined with the warm marble. Wetting
conditions are present, if warmer and moist outside air
circulate around a cold marble. If a continuous large cir-
culation rate exists, the marble sculpture will cool down
during long freeze periods and increase the risk of
deterioration.
Because of the large mass of the marble body, the
temperature behaviour is more inert than in a small arm,
the head or a wing. In that case, the marble can cool down
very quickly, reducing condensation events.
Design and development of an object-related
shelter system
Cover requirements
The design of statue covers must satisfy an extensive set of
criteria including aesthetic, structural and physical perfor-
mance (cf. Gengnagel 2005). From an aesthetic point of
view, there are two fundamentally different approaches:
first, the covering serves as an intentional act of disguise
Fig. 19 Comparison of relative
humidity calculated for two
wooden protective winter
covers in the early spring:
relatively tight (left) and having
air ventilation openings (right)
Environ Earth Sci (2011) 63:1823–1848 1839
123
and second, the covering serves as an ‘‘invisible’’ protec-
tion (where the degree of invisibility depends heavily on
design and materials). The disguise approach can act as a
cover for the statue while providing a clear reference to its
original form and cultural significance. The cover can also
be a totally new and neutral entity, a box for example. In
both cases, the covering will result in a new object with its
own aesthetic identity. The intended effect of transparent
coverings is to preserve the viewer’s impression of the
original statue as far as possible. However, the impact of
the still necessary structure can lead to a different end
result. Finally, both types of coverings should not only
serve as an extension of the existing statue but also as a
design object itself.
The covering provides an environmental barrier for the
statue. Specific requirements for covering vary with dif-
ferent applications. Each solution provides varying degrees
of structural stability, load distribution, water resistance,
insulation, vapour and solar irradiation control. All cover-
ings need to sustain applied loads from wind and snow and
distribute these to the primary structure and supports.
Structurally there are two basic systems: skin or shelter.
While the skin system transfers external loads directly to
the statue, a shelter protects the statue from exposure to
external loads.
The skin system does not improve the overall stability of
the statue, but in fact increases the area exposed to wind
loads, which can lead to serious stability problems of the
Fig. 20 Distribution of relative
humidity within the protective
winter covers using a membrane
shelter. The results are for
December 15th, February 1st
and March 30th, membrane
cover relatively tight (diagrams
at the top) and open air
ventilation (diagrams at the
bottom)
1840 Environ Earth Sci (2011) 63:1823–1848
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statue or parts of it. Another critical issue with skin systems
is the risk of damage to the statue caused by concentrated
loading during the skin assembly. The performance of
skins with respect to complex environmental control is
limited. The main advantages being that these membrane
skins are light, comparatively inexpensive and can be fol-
ded into small volumes allowing the membrane to be
transported and erected easily and quickly.
Shelter systems can be differentiated into two types.
Type 1 uses a skeleton as the primary structural system and a
mostly soft surface as a secondary structural system. Type 2
uses units or hard shells, where the stiff surface is an integral
part of the structure. Both types protect the statue from
external loads and climatic influences. In general, shelters are
exposed to higher wind loads due to the larger surface com-
pared to a skin. The shelter can be supported on the base of the
statue or the ground. As shelters often have only few supports,
the support forces are high. This affects the preservation of the
historical monument as a whole, which demands the design of
reversible fixing solutions or the reduction of permanent fixing
points to a minimum.
Until recently and for most applications, the protective
climatic requirements for shelter systems were of lesser
importance. Often, shelters fulfilled only the requirement
of water tightness. Generally, shelter systems provide more
freedom in optimising the internal environment of an
enclosure by using insulated materials or multifunctional
elements like sandwich constructions.
Sculpture adapted system
The covering of the marble statues on the Schlossbru¨cke
presents a complex and unique challenge due to their
exposition, their dimensions and cultural significance in an
urban context. The statues are placed on a base 4.00 m
above street level and about 8.00 m above the river Spree.
Since their reconstruction in the 1880s, the plinths are no
longer monolithic blocks. The plinths now consist of a core
made of pre-fabricated concrete elements encased in a
curtain wall of marble. The statues themselves are around
4.50 m tall and some suffer from serious stability prob-
lems. Most of the statues have very delicate and exposed
extremities.
Initial design concepts (Fig. 22) struggled to satisfy all
the design constraints. The use of a skin would enlarge the
area of the statue exposed to wind loads resulting in
magnified stability problems. Shelter-based design con-
cepts proved unfeasible as the shelters may not be fixed to
the plinth.
Stable and usable support surfaces for the shelter exist
only below the plinth and subsequently below street level.
On the water side of the statues, sandstone blocks extend
underneath the marble plinths, which can be used for
anchoring structural supports. A further anchor point is
available on the street side at the pedestrian level; however,
an expansion of the covering system into this strongly
frequented public area leads to functional and also aesthetic
deficits. A support on the pavement was therefore
eliminated.
The constraints described above result in a 9 m high
structure, which must be installed below street level and
from the water side. The use of technical aids (such as a
crane) is therefore indispensable.
Concept of the covering system
The shelters can be developed for individual geometric
requirements of each statue or as an overall solution for all
statues. Individualised solutions would facilitate the mini-
misation of exterior surfaces and resulting wind loads. A
single shelter solution for all statues would result in a larger
design but batch production will incur lower costs.
Choosing between an individual and overall solution
depends on the geometry of the statues. A study of the
statue geometry shows that despite the different motives,
the dimensions and proportions of all figures are very
Fig. 21 Comparison of different membrane protective winter cover
systems: a no ventilation, small ventilation (base open) and high
ventilation (5 Pa pressure difference). b Relative humidity at the torso
of the sculpture: no ventilation, small (0.5 Pa pressure difference and
base open), medium (1.5 Pa pressure difference) and large ventilation
(5 Pa pressure difference)
Environ Earth Sci (2011) 63:1823–1848 1841
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similar. Individual solutions for all figures would therefore
result in only small deviations and would not reduce the
wind loads significantly. On account of this, an overall
solution was developed for the statues on the ‘‘Schloss-
bru¨cke’’ bridge.
In order to facilitate the development of a generalised
covering system, basic 3D geometric profiles of the statues
were compiled and superimposed with one another to serve
as reference geometry data. The generated superposition
does not identify any primary orientation. The cross section
of the figures in plan is slightly larger than the upper sur-
face of the plinth.
The geometric constraints, used in developing the cov-
ers, were defined by adding a buffer offset to the super-
imposed 3D profiles. In order to evaluate what impact the
cover’s cross sectional profile (in plan) has on design and
wind resistance, a variety of sections were examined
(namely square, polygonal and circular).
On the grounds of aesthetic and climatic design, an early
decision saw the extension of the cover to a height below
that of the foot of the statue. Another major design decision
was the selection of a conical form as a preferred shape for
the cover system. The selection is justified by three struc-
tural advantages: primarily, the conical form facilitates a
constant geometrical transition from the larger figure to the
smaller base. Subsequently and secondly, the dead weight
and the wind forces are minimised where possible. Third,
the buffer offset between the cover and statue is suitably
largest at the top of the cone where deflections are also the
biggest.
Analysing wind forces to different section profiles
shows that a circular section results in the smallest wind
resistance and only a very small stress factor (Fig. 23). A
further advantage of the circular section is the continuous
curvature for the use of a mechanically pre-stressed
membrane.
Method of assembly
The method of assembly and disassembly of the statue
covers is governed by the following conditions: (i) the
assembly and disassembly takes place ever year, (ii) the
assembly and disassembly must be achieved simply and
quickly with minimal technical aids (i.e. machinery) and
(iii) while the statues’ plinths are reasonably resistant to
light bumps and scrapes during the erection process, the
statues themselves are fragile and can be damaged easily.
The last constraint is particularly important for the
assembly and disassembly of the statue covers. Gaining
precise control over the movement of all components of a
9 m high structure during its erection is extremely
demanding, all the more so, because of restricted accessi-
bility to the statues on the bridge.
In order to guard against the risks of potential movement
of the structure or parts of it during assembly, there are two
basic solutions: (i) to select a large structural footprint with
sufficient tolerances for movements and deformations and
(ii) to remotely control the assembly of the structure and
thereby gaining precise control of the kinematic system.
The first solution leads to large dimensions and subse-
quently heavy parts, which makes assembly and disas-
sembly unfeasible. For this reason, a remotely controlled
system was investigated and developed as a solution to the
assembly and disassembly problem. The proposed solution
is a two-step process. The first step involves mounting and
assembling all the components and component groups onto
the anchor points and to each other, during which large
movements can be expected. The second step involves
erecting the kinematic system to its final position through
application of external loads. As such, any movements are
a direct result of the (controllable) kinematic system.
The basic concept of the remotely controlled solution is
to isolate all manual assembly processes within the lower
Fig. 22 Different design concepts: a soft skin stabilised by underpressure, b stiff framework with soft surface and c stiff modular surface
1842 Environ Earth Sci (2011) 63:1823–1848
123
and more robust plinth base, where damage cannot be so
easily incurred. Then the structure can be assembled
upwards encasing the statue from below. Finally a lid is
craned into position to close the system from above.
Mounting the lid from above poses a low risk since the
fragile statue is already encased and protected at this point.
Kinematic system
The proposed kinematic system can be basically repre-
sented by two pin-jointed members that connect upper and
lower ring beams. An applied force is required in order to
induce movement in the system. This force should be
applied vertically and directly between the ring bars. Such
a force can be achieved using hydraulic pistons or a rack
and pinion system. In order to prevent an uneven erection,
the force application must be controlled by an electronic or
visual feedback system.
Only vertical members, and not diagonal members, can
be used for the kinematic system. If the diagonal members
are used in the erection process, they would induce hori-
zontal reaction loads resulting in tangential rotation of the
upper ring. Therefore, only vertical members are to be used
to stabilise the kinematic system, whereas tensile diagonal
members (cables) will be used to stiffen the static system.
Pre-stressing the cables and membrane can be carried out
by the erection. In order to complete the transformation
from a kinematic system to a static one, the articulated
joints in the middle of the vertical members must be made
rigid.
Assembly steps
The final housing system is comprised of aluminium truss
members, which will be pre-fabricated into a set of units
for assembly (each of which weighs no more than 80 kg,
Table 3). The structure would double in weight if it were
made out of steel. Therefore, a crane would be required for
the assembly of a steel version.
The complete assembling process consists of four main
steps (Fig. 24).
Step 1 All three pre-fabricated V-columns are to be
mounted onto the anchor points and bolted to one
another. The first V-column requires a temporary
support during construction. The second and third
V-columns will be stabilised by the first and
second columns, respectively. When all three
V-columns have been mounted, the system will
be statically determinate and the temporary
support can be removed.
Step 2 The three ring elements (each split into two
halves) are to be mounted on top of the existing
structure. The membranes will be secured to one
half of the ring and when the rings are fixed, the
membrane can be pulled through into the other
half of the ring.
Step 3 The rings are to be erected vertically starting with
the bottom ring and ending with the top ring.
Step 4 The fully pre-fabricated lid (with pre-stressed
membrane) is to be mounted on top of the
existing structure and secured with bolts. The
disassembly of the structure is a repeat of the
above steps in reverse.
Structure and covering
The shelter can be divided into two structural subsystems.
The first subsystem consists of three ring elements and a
roof (Fig. 24a). This subsystem is axisymmetric and equal
for all statues, and its structural behaviour equates to a
shell. The second subsystem consists of V-columns, which
statically behave as a framework. The V-columns start at
the rectangular plinth and end at the circular ring elements.
Due to the irregular balustrade geometry, the V-columns
and support points are non-symmetrical and differ for all
corner statues and the group of centre statues.
The V-columns are sufficiently adaptable to fulfil the
different geometric constraints at every statue. The four
Fig. 23 Drag coefficient and stress factor (drag coefficient/section
modulus) of different geometries
Table 3 Weights of the different covering elements
V-columns 3 elements 176 kg
Weight ring 2 2 elements 111 kg
Weight ring 3 2 elements 108 kg
Weight ring 4 2 elements 105 kg
Weight roof 1 element 79 kg
Total weight 579 kg
Environ Earth Sci (2011) 63:1823–1848 1843
123
shelters in the middle of the bridge have only anchor points
on the water side, whereas the corner shelters have anchor
points on the water side and on the pedestrian walkway.
The difference in height between these points is about
50 cm and leads to additional changes in the geometry of
the V-columns. The V-columns are pinned to threaded steel
bars, which are cemented into the plinth base. These pins
remain permanently.
The structure consists of aluminium hollow sections.
The V-columns are intended as round pipes with a diameter
of 6 cm, and the ring beams as rectangular cross
sections 6 cm 9 4 cm.
The covering of the structure consists of a mechanically
pre-stressed membrane. The membrane is stabilised by its
two-way curvature to avoid noise by beating and flapping.
The geometric design puts the membrane inside of the
skeleton structure.
The decisive load case combines dead weight, wind
loads and snow loads. This load combination produces a
substantial horizontal deformation of up to 12 cm. Due to
the asymmetry of the V-columns, the deformations vary
around a factor of two depending on the wind direction
(Fig. 25).
The influence of geometrical imperfections at the sup-
port points was also examined. Differences between the
intended and the actual structure geometry can result from
inaccuracies during fabrication, deformations caused due to
inappropriate storage, transport and assembly and devia-
tions in plinth geometry. The imperfections can be mini-
mised but not avoided completely. A deviation of 2.5 cm at
one support point leads to additional stresses of 10%, and a
deviation of 5 cm to additional stresses of 25%. These
distances are small in relation to the total height of 9 m,
and therefore the geometrical imperfections must be
considered.
Proper handling, transportation and assembly of the
components must be carried out in order to avoid causing
further imperfections as much as possible. An examination
of accuracy to size at regular time intervals can offer suf-
ficient security. Since imperfections in mobile structures
cannot be avoided completely, the dimensions of the
structure have been calculated with appropriate reserves.
Fig. 24 a Kinematic system
and b concept of erection
process of the covering shelter
(step 1–4 from left to right)
Fig. 25 Deformation of the
different shelters depending on
the wind direction
1844 Environ Earth Sci (2011) 63:1823–1848
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Discussion and summary
The investigation presented in this paper deals with a
culturally and historically significant group of valuable
sculptures made from Carrara marble and displayed in an
urban environment. Conservation of cultural assets con-
structed from natural stones requires regular inspection and
maintenance as an effective instrument in preventive
monument preservation. Winter coverings are part of the
conservation procedures for exposed monuments and
consist of highly complex systems. These systems have to
be adapted to the climatic conditions, the structural and
technical circumstances and the material properties of the
statues as well as being applied in a practical way. More-
over, the inventory and restoration history needs to be
taken into consideration in regards to the decade’s long use
of preserving agents, because these can change the nature
of the original material as well as the technical/physical
properties. The importance and central location of the
Schlossbru¨cke in the periphery of the world heritage site
known as the Museum Island, requires a constructive as
well as aesthetic and sophisticated assembly for covering
these valuable bridge sculptures.
The design demands for the Schlossbru¨cke winter cov-
ers were particularly challenging. The geometry of the
sculptures, the balustrades and the side walls differs from
figure to figure, requiring each winter cover to be cus-
tomised, respectively. Structural elements of a shelter
system may not be fixed to the marble plinth directly below
the figures, but instead must extend 4 m further down to the
sandstone base. The structure is subsequently 9 m high and
so the assembly, which must be carried out above water,
presents a significant challenge. Furthermore, the statues
are particularly delicate and could therefore be easily
damaged with incautious assembly.
The proposed shelter system has been developed to
satisfy requirements for aesthetic design, structural stability
and protection of the sculptures (Fig. 26). The structure is
sufficiently adaptable to meet the varying geometric con-
straints at each figure, while maximising component stan-
dardisation. Assembly of the aluminium framework and
pre-stressed membrane has low-tech demands. The use of a
remotely controlled system will facilitate precise erection
with high geometric tolerances.
The general requirements for winter covers of outdoor
stone statuary are to provide protection against external
environmental factors (liquid water, humidity, solar irra-
diation, frost, strong variations in surface temperatures),
chemical factors (acid pollutants, salt damage) and bio-
logical factors (invasive flora and fauna). As well as pro-
viding sufficient environmental protection, the winter
covers must also satisfy further demands on aesthetic
performance, structural stability and for transportation, safe
assembly and storage. Since some of these constraints
conflict with one another, the winter cover cannot satisfy
all the demands simultaneously. Instead, a balanced solu-
tion must be found by prioritising the criteria.
The climate data presented on some examples are a
valuable basis for numerical simulations, for the assess-
ment of protective winter covers and their effect on the
microclimate at the sculptures. The data have been col-
lected on sculptures exposed to the weather and on
Fig. 26 View of the shelter
systems from the street and river
Environ Earth Sci (2011) 63:1823–1848 1845
123
sculptures inside two different protective covers. By means
of these measurements, the influence of the covers on the
microclimate near the sculptures can be shown.
The collected data show that the temperature of the
sculptures is determined mainly by the temperature of the
ambient air. The influence of direct sunlight on the surface
temperature is relatively low. Due to the high thermal
conductivity, the temperature gradient inside the material is
small. A fast drop of the surface temperature can be caused
by sudden rain in summer.
Due to the wide openings of the studied covers, no signif-
icant difference between the inside and the outside air tem-
perature has been measured. However, the effect of shading
and the lower wind speed causes the surface temperature of the
massive parts of the sculpture within the cover to show smaller
temperature peaks than the surface temperature of weathered
sculptures. Besides the protection against the rain, the mem-
brane cover reduces the infiltration of water by dew. This
effect might be increased by closing and sealing the cover
completely. Furthermore, to avoid the accumulation of dust
deposits the cover should remain closed.
The measurements will be continued even when the
project is finished in October 2010. An additional mea-
surement system will be installed at a sculpture that will be
covered by a new protective system in October 2010.
Meanwhile, numerous simulations of the marble and the
protective systems have been carried out.
Induced by the climatic conditions at the ‘‘Schloss-
bru¨cke - Unter der Linden’’ the exposed marble sculptures
become moistened to a penetration depth of 200 mm. Thus,
the smaller parts, e.g. legs, arms, head and wing, can
become completely moistened. During the spring and
summer, the marble can dry completely. Thin and filigree
parts of the sculpture have large surface areas, e.g. the
feathers of wings will completely dry out and then become
completely wet again. Therefore, these sculpture parts are
subjected to extreme climatic loads.
Wooden winter housing always brings protection from
rainstorms, but there are some other aspects to pay atten-
tion too. While airtight wooden protective systems and
small air exchanges keeps the marble dry, a large air
exchange leads to a wetting caused by condensation. The
load by condensation can be very similar in magnitude as
from a heavy rain. Membrane winter covers can be an
efficient means for protection against downpours, but
analogous to wooden housing the ventilation rate can
moisten the marble. The moisture balance of the sculpture
is a complex relationship between temperature, relative
humidity and acting climatic conditions as well. The
exchange of air can lead to both a drying potential as well
as to a dampening of the marble.
Moisture distribution in different parts of the sculpture,
e.g. body, leg, arm, head, wing, is very complex. A climatic
change can produce a slight load in the torso part but
results in a strong load in the filigree sculpture parts. Thus,
one has to define priorities of the sculpture and to optimise
them.
The investigations on membrane materials for winter
covers have shown positive effects when they are used as a
type of insulating membrane. The usage of a double lay-
ered membrane, e.g. bubble membrane, could further
support the insulation effect.
The numerical results also make clear that the air
exchange should be reduced. During the cold months, air
circulation leads to moistening. On the other hand, a con-
trolled air exchange can support the drying of the sculpture.
This leads to an improvement of a protective winter
housing and creates a climate-controlled air circulation.
From a geoscientific point of view, marbles represent a
very special building stone, because they show positive and
negative properties (e.g. translucent appearance, work-
ability, weathering behaviour, etc.). The extreme aniso-
tropic dilatation behaviour of calcite and dolomite single
crystals especially leads to stresses in the rock fabric during
changes in temperature, which results in an initial micro-
cracking. Moisture is considered to be a key parameter
concerning the marble decay process (Schouenborg et al.
2000, 2003) and can lead to unlimited residual expansion
of certain marble types. Many authors (e.g. Sage 1988;
Siegesmund et al. 2000; Ruedrich 2003) have demonstrated
that the increase of residual strain stops after a few heating
cycles if moisture is absent. To discuss these effects in
more detail, Koch and Siegesmund (2004) performed
measurements of progressive residual strain of different
marbles under slightly different conditions (Fig. 27). Eight
dry cycles up to 90C were followed by 25 additional wet
cycles altogether, whereby the first six wet cycles were
carried out in a way that at the end of a heating cycle the
Fig. 27 Progressive increase of residual strain of a Carrara marble as
a function of the number of heating cycles under dry (cycles 1–8) and
wet (cycles 8–33) conditions. From cycles 8–14, the samples remain
humid; from cycle 14 samples run dry after each cycle. The colours of
the curves indicate different directions of the sample reference system
1846 Environ Earth Sci (2011) 63:1823–1848
123
samples in the climate chamber remained slightly humid
but still in contact with water. In the following 19 cycles,
the samples were run until totally dry. The findings from
this approach are: (i) the progressive residual strain indeed
proceeds continuously; the increase is constant even after
25 cycles under wet conditions and (ii) the moisture con-
tent after a heating cycle apparently influences the intensity
of marble degradation. The strain versus cycles curve
(Fig. 27) tends to get flat as long as water is still available
during the test cycles. As soon as samples totally dry up
after each heating cycle, the durable marble expansion
accelerates again.
The thermal expansion behaviour in Fig. 5f also shows a
progressive increase of residual strain by freezing marble
samples under wet conditions. For freezing under dry
sample conditions, no further residual strain occurs. Thus,
the decay behaviour for heating as well as for cooling is
more or less the same. Accordingly, the worst scenario will
be drying during temperature changes. Although the decay
magnitude induced by the heating process seems to be
more important, the winter period should also cause pro-
gressive fabric decay. Consequently, for a winter cover the
moisture content should only show a slight variation in
range. Situations of drying/wetting induced by ventilation
and condensation processes should be avoided from a
material point of view.
Acknowledgments Our work was supported by the Deutsche
Bundesstiftung Umwelt.
Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution Noncommercial License which per-
mits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any
medium, provided the original author(s) and source are credited.
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