On the suitability of admixing sand to metallic iron for water treatment 1 
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Chicgoua Noubactep 
Angewandte Geologie, Universität Göttingen, Goldschmidtstraße 3, D-37077, Göttingen, Germany. 
Kultur und Nachhaltige Entwicklung CDD e.V., Postfach 1502, D-37005 Göttingen, Germany 
e-mail: cnoubac@gwdg.de; Tel. +49 551 39 3191, Fax: +49 551 399379. 
 
 
Abstract 
This communication clarifies the relationships between sand addition and the sustainability of 
iron/water systems for environmental remediation. It is shown that any enhanced contaminant 
removal in an iron/sand/water relative to an iron/water system is related to the 
avoidance/delay of particle cementation by virtue of the inert nature of sand. The argument 
that sand dissolution produces protons (H+) to sustain iron corrosion is disproved by the very 
low dissolution kinetics solubility of SiO2-bearing minerals under environmental conditions. 
This demonstration corroborates the concept that aqueous contaminant removal in iron/water 
systems is not a process mediated by electrons from Fe0. 
 
Keywords: Adsorption, Co-precipitation, Dissolution kinetics, Sand admixture, Zerovalent 
iron. 
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1. Introduction 20 
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The use of metallic iron (Fe0) has become an established technology for environmental 
remediation and water treatment in recent years (O´Hannesin and Gillham, 1998; 
Odziemkowski and Simpraga, 2004; Bartzas et al., 2006; Li et al., 2006; Henderson and 
Demond, 2007; Hussam and Munir, 2007; Hussam, 2009; Noubactep et al. 2009a; O et al., 
2009; Bartzas and Komnitsas, 2010; Li and Benson, 2010; Comba et al., 2011; Gheju, 2011; 
Gunawardana et al., 2011; Jeen et al., 2011; Allred, 2012; Ingram et al., 2012; Jeen et al., 
2012; Huang et al., 2012; Noubactep et al., 2012a; Ruhl et al., 2012a; Ruhl et al., 2012b; Ruhl 
et al., 2012c). The processes governing contaminant removal are considered widely 
understood (Cong et al., 2010; Henderson and Demond, 2011; ITRC, 2011; Chen et al. 2012a; 
Jeen et al., 2012; Huang et al., 2013a; Huang et al., 2013b). Meanwhile, reported studies are 
focused on ways to enhance the Fe0 reactivity such as using nano-sized particles and 
bimetallic systems (Ghauch et al., 2011; Crane and Scott, 2012; Noubactep et al., 2012a), 
using other reactive metallic elements (e.g. Al0, Ti0, Zn0) (Bojic et al., 2007; Sarathy et al., 
2010; Guo et al., 2012; Lee et al., 2012; Salter-Blanc et al., 2012) or using hybridized systems 
like Fe0/Fe3O4/FeII (Huang et al., 2012; Huang et al., 2013a; Huang et al., 2013b). However, 
the validity of the current paradigm has been seriously questioned as the relevance of direct 
reduction (reduction by electrons from Fe0) for observed efficiency of Fe0/H2O systems was 
challenged (Lavine et al., 2001; Noubactep, 2007; Noubactep, 2008; Jiao et al., 2009; Ghauch 
et al., 2010; Noubactep, 2010a; Noubactep, 2010b; Ghauch et al., 2011; Gheju and Balcu 
2011; Noubactep, 2011a; Noubactep, 2011b; Noubactep, 2012a; Liu et al., 2013). The 
problem is well worthy to be discussed further. The present contribution focuses on the use of 
sand as additive material in Fe0 filtration systems.  
The idea that sand/quartz (SiO2) admixture enhances the extent/efficiency of contaminant 
removal in Fe0/H2O systems has significant support in the literature (Powell et al., 1995; 
Kaplan and Gilmore, 2004; Song et al., 2005; Wu et al., 2005; Guo et al., 2011). This idea co-
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exists with concerns that SiO2 addition is a ‘dilution’ of reactive materials and is necessarily 
accompanied by slower kinetics and lower extent of the decontamination process (Devlin and 
Patchen, 2004; Bi et al., 2009; Ruhl et al. 2012a). Each of this argument is seemingly  
supported by strong experimental evidence and has let to the recent statement that “there is no 
conclusive evidence that a sand/iron mix is better or worse than a pure iron barrier” (Ulsamer, 
2011). Moreover, although the efficiency of Fe
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0 PRBs was demonstrated with a 22:78 
Fe0:sand w/w mixture for the removal of TCE (O´Hannesin and Gillham, 1998), Ruhl et al. 
(2012a) recently demonstrated the inefficiency of dual Fe:additive mixtures for the removal of 
the same compound (e.g. TCE) from a contaminated groundwater. Tested additives included 
anthracite, gravel, pumice and sand.  
The objective of this paper is to clarify the impact of sand addition on the long term efficiency 
(or sustainability) of  Fe0/H2O systems using a mathematical modelling. The discussion starts 
by a careful analysis of the Fe0/sand/H2O system on a pure chemical perspective. 
2. The chemistry of the Fe0/sand/H2O system 
The presentation in this section is limited to an ideal anoxic system (absence of oxygen). 
Under such conditions Fe0 is oxidized by protons (H+) from water dissociation after Eq. 1: 
Fe0  +  2 H+  ⇒  Fe2+  +  H2     (1) 
 After the Lechatelier’s Principle, Eq. 1 is sustained/enhanced in a system if: (i) H+ is 
produced, (ii) Fe2+  is consumed and (iii) H2 is consumed or escapes out of the system. 
Is the view that sand sustains the efficiency of Fe0 supported by Lechatelier’s Principle? It is 
obvious that sand is not a reservoir of H2. Accordingly, H2 may escape or be used for 
microbial activities. Sand may potentially adsorb Fe2+ but its adsorption capacity is limited 
and any redox reaction of adsorbed FeII-species is only indirectly coupled with the parent Fe0. 
The last discussed option is that sand may produced protons. The ability of sand to produce 
protons has been documented in the Fe0 literature (Powell et al., 1995; Blowes et al., 1997; 
Powell and Puls, 1997). In this context a ‘buffering effect’ of SiO2-bearing materials has been 
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reported. However, because of the very slow rate of SiO2 dissolution (Rimstidt and Barnes, 
1980; Kehew, 2001), it is doubtful whether any significant acidification by SiO
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2 dissolution 
may occur (Eq. 2). The observed pH decrease in short-term batch experiments can be 
attributed to hydrodynamic effects (mixing operations) dissolving weathered fines from the 
surface of used materials. After this initial dissolution observed in Batch experiments, no 
quantitative SiO2 dissolution could be expected at pH ≥ 4.5. 
SiO2(s)  +  2 H2O ⇒ H4SiO4(aq)        (2) 
The presentation until now shows that sand admixture can not actively sustain the efficiency 
of Fe0/H2O systems in the long-term. Therefore, the observed enhanced efficiency (Song et 
al., 2005; Bi et al., 2009; Gottinger et al., 2010) should be explained by other processes. 
3. The operating mode of Fe0/sand/H2O 
3.1 Descriptive aspects 
Sand is a geo-material conventionally used for water treatment (Darcy, 1856; Weber-Shirk 
and Dick, 1997; Ngai et al., 2007; Kubare and Haarhoff, 2010; Gottinger et al., 2011). Sand is 
mostly considered a non reactive material for media filtration. In some cases, this material is 
mixed with reactive natural materials to sustain selective removal of some species (Yao et al., 
1971; Ali, 2012). Tested natural reactive materials include iron ores (e.g. siderite, hematite), 
manganese ores, volcanic stones, and zeolites (Guo et al., 2007a; Guo et al., 2007b; Doula, 
2009). In other cases, sand is artificially coated with reactive media such as iron or manganese 
oxides (Gupta et al., 2005). While filtration on pure sand bed is termed ‘media filtration’ 
(size-exclusion of suspended particles), adsorption on coated sand is known as ‘adsorptive 
filtration’ (Edwards and Benjamin, 1989; Dermatas and Meng, 2004). This classification is 
operational as sand may adsorb some species more strongly than iron oxides. A classical 
example was reported by Mitchell et al. (1955). These authors demonstrates that some iron 
oxide coated sands are worse adsorbents for methylene blue than original materials (non-
coated). The observation of Mitchell et al. (1955) is very important for the design of Fe0 
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filtration systems. In fact, species that are not readily removed by iron oxide coated sand 
should be removed before the Fe
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0-containing zone, for instance on a granular carbon or sand 
layers. For the purpose of this communication it is sufficient to consider that in a 
Fe0/sand/H2O system, iron-oxide-coated sand is generated in-situ. 
Previous theoretical studies have argued that a Fe0-containing zone must be situated after one 
or several biosand filters to operate under anoxic conditions where less expansive corrosion 
products are generated (Noubactep et al., 2009a; Noubactep, 2010c; Noubactep and Caré, 
2010; Noubactep and Schöner, 2010; Noubactep et al., 2010; Noubactep et al. 2012b; 
Noubactep et al. 2012c). Methylene blue can be regarded as proxies for all species with low 
adsorptive affinity to iron oxides. This observation of Mitchell et al. (1955) corroborates the 
view that, in a multi-barriers system, a Fe0-containing zone must never be implemented at the 
beginning of the chain. Moreover, the fact that methylene blue is quantitatively removed in 
Fe0/sand systems (Noubactep, 2009; Chen et al., 2012b; Miyajima and Noubactep, 2012; 
Btatkeu et al., 2013; Miyajima and Noubactep, 2013) confirms that adsorption, co-
precipitation and enhanced size-exclusion are the fundamental mechanisms of contaminant 
removal in Fe0/H2O systems. Accordingly, despite the low affinity of MB for adsorbing 
species in Fe0/H2O systems, quantitative MB removal can be achieved upon proper system 
design (Btatkeu et al., 2013). Recent calculations have demonstrated that using the same mass 
of Fe0, the best treatment system is achieved in using the column with the smallest diameter 
(Noubactep et al. 2012c). In such beds/columns  Fe0 is mixed with a non expansive material, 
e.g. sand. The most favourable Fe0 volumetric proportions are bellow 50 % (Miyajima, 2012; 
Miyajima and Noubactep, 2013), but the intrinsic reactivity of Fe0 and the relative geometry 
of Fe0 and sand should be considered as well (O et al., 2009; Caré et al. 2012, Btatkeu et al. 
2013). It is hoped that all these aspects will be considered in future system design. 
3.2 Sand as dispersant 
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Aqueous iron corrosion at pH > 4.5 is a cycle of (i) oxidative dissolution (Fe0 ⇒ Fe2+), (ii) 
solvatation (Fe(H
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2O)62+), (iii) volumetric expansion (formation of Fe(OH)n colloids), (iv) 
volumetric contraction (Fe hydroxides/oxides) processes. The overall process is known as 
‘volumetric expansion’ (Noubactep, 2010c; Noubactep and Schöner, 2010; Noubactep, 
2011c). The volume of any iron Fe hydroxide or oxide is higher than that of the original metal 
(Fe0) (Pilling and Bedworth, 1923; Caré et al., 2008). The ratio between the volume of 
expansive corrosion product and the volume of iron consumed in the corrosion process is 
called ‘‘rust expansion coefficient’’. However, this coefficient does not reflect the 
intermediary expansive stage of the process which yield volumetric colloids that are capable 
of enmeshing foreign species during their further transformation to oxides (Noubactep, 2010a; 
2010c; 2011c, 2012a). More importantly, these volumetric colloids have the ability to 
‘cement’ or ‘compact’ granular particles (Mackenzie et al., 1999; Kaplan and Gilmore, 2004). 
The cementation process results in limited access to all three potential removing agents: non 
corroded Fe0, iron oxides and sand. Thus contaminant removal by adsorption and/or co-
precipitation is inhibited. On the contrary, in fest bed filtration systems, adsorptive size-
exclusion is enhanced but the system permeability is reduced (permeability loss). This is the 
first reason why pure Fe0 systems (100 % Fe0) are efficient but not sustainable (Hussam, 
2009; Noubactep et al., 2010). 
Regarding Fe0 particles as ‘cement generators’ suggests that the first tool to limit 
cementation/compaction is to decrease the proportion of Fe0 (Caré et al., 2012; Noubactep et 
al., 2012b). In other words, batch and column systems with 100 % Fe0 leave no room for solid 
phase expansion (Miyajima and Noubactep, 2012). Such systems will ‘clog’ rapidly and iron 
corrosion and the corresponding contaminant removal will be minimal. In other words, sand 
and other non expansive additives should not be regarded as material slowing the mass 
transport of reactants to the Fe0 surface but rather as a dispersant sustaining the system’s 
efficiency (more Fe0 is consumed, more adsorbing agents are produced) (Noubactep et al., 
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2012b). The use of non-reactive materials to sustain Fe0 efficiency is current at nano-scale 
(Gheju, 2011; ITRC, 2011; Crane and Scott, 2012; Noubactep et al., 2012a). On the other 
hand, the efficiency of the hybridized Fe
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0/Fe3O4/FeII presented by Huang et al. (2012; 2013a; 
2013b) can be attributed to the non/less expansive nature of Fe3O4 (magnetite) and the 
enhanced reactivity of FeII adsorbed onto magnetite and nascent iron hydroxides (Charlet et 
al., 1998; Liger et al., 1999; Noubactep, 2007; Noubactep, 2008; Noubactep, 2011a). 
Regarding sand and other non-expansive additives as useful tools to sustain Fe0 efficiency 
explains all reported discrepancies on the effect of sand addition on the efficiency of Fe0/H2O 
systems. In particular, the statement of Ulsamer (2011) that “there is no conclusive evidence 
that a sand/iron mix is better or worse than a pure iron barrier” is due to the fact that results 
have been compared with little care on the operational conditions of their production (Crane 
and Noubactep, 2012; Noubactep, 2012b). Additionally, there is still no index to characterize 
the intrinsic reactivity of  Fe0 material (Noubactep et al., 2009b; Miyajima and Noubactep, 
2012; Btatkeu et al., 2013; Miyajima and Noubactep, 2013). For example, a filtration system 
(e.g. a column) containing 100 % of a less reactive material (material A) may not experience 
clogging while a readily reactive material (material B) could induce clogging even at 40 % 
volumetric proportion within similar working conditions. In other words, the suitability of 
admixing additive to iron can not be accessed before the intrinsic reactivity is properly 
characterized. Beside the Fe0 intrinsic reactivity, other relevant factors influencing the 
porosity of filtration beds should be considered (Kubare and Haarhoff, 2010; Caré et al., 
2012; Btatkeu et al., 2013; Miyajima and Noubactep, 2013). Factors influencing the 
efficiency of Fe0 filtration systems include: (i) the particle size and form of reactive materials, 
(ii) the dimensions of the treatment systems and (ii) the chemistry of raw waters (Noubactep 
et al., 2012c; Caré et al., 2012; Crane and Noubactep, 2012; Ruhl et al., 2012b; Togue-Kamga 
et al., 2012a, Togue-Kamga et al., 2012b; Btatkeu et al., 2013; Miyajima and Noubactep, 
2013). 
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4. Discussing the process of permeability loss in Fe0/H2O systems 175 
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In this section, an evaluation of permeability loss in a series of filters (e.g. reactive zones) 
with an initial pore volume Vp = 100 mL is given. Assuming an initial porosity of 40 % the 
volume of the filter is Vrz = 250 mL and the volume of solid is Vsolid = 150 mL. This volume 
can be occupied by 1170 g of granular Fe0 (density: 7.8 g/cm3). It is assumed that this filter is 
used to (electro)chemically reduce CrO72- to Cr3+ (Eq. 1) which is then precipitated as Cr2O3 
(unit cell volume: 289.85 A°3 corresponding to 174.6 mL/mol) (Prewitt et al., 1969) under 
anoxic conditions (Fe3O4 is the major iron corrosion product). 
3 Fe0  +  Cr2O72-  + 14 H+  ⇒ 3 Fe2+  + 2 Cr3+  + 7 H2O   (1) 
The initial pore volume (Vp = 100 mL) is completely filled when 570 g of Fe0 (10.17 moles) 
is oxidized and precipitated as Fe3O4. Accordingly, using a 100 % Fe0 bed corresponds to a 
51.3 % material wastage with the additional disadvantage that the system is not sustainable. 
Assuming that Fe0 oxidation is coupled to chemical CrVI reduction (Eq. 1), the initial pore 
volume is filled by only 0.57 mole of Cr2O3. This corresponds to the oxidation of 1.72 moles 
of Fe0 (by 0.57 mole of Cr2O72-). 0.57 mole is contained in 29,640 L of a 1 mg/L Cr2O72-. In 
other words, up to 30 m3 of water containing 1 mg/L Cr2O72- can be treated by only 600 g (0.6 
kg) of Fe0. These calculations corroborate the huge potential of Fe0/H2O systems for water 
treatment while disapproving the current expression of the removal capacity (in mg 
contaminant per g Fe0) partly derived from batch experiments.  
Summarized, Vp = 100 mL is completely clogged when (i) 10.17 moles of Fe0 is oxidized by 
water and subsequently precipitated as Fe3O4 or (ii) 1.72 moles of Fe0 is oxidized by 0.57 
mole Cr2O72- to form 0.57 mole of Cr2O3. However, it should be kept in mind that Cr2O72- can 
be removed without reduction and corrosion products are always oxides/hydroxides mixtures. 
4.1 Permeability loss resulting from expansive corrosion 
The methodology for the assessment of the permeability loss is explicitly presented in Caré et 
al. (2012). Fe0/sand systems with Fe0 volumetric ratios (τZVI) varying from 0 to 100 % are 
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considered. A Fe0 filter is made up of granular solid materials (Fe0, sand) and the voids 
between the grains (pore volume, V
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p). The volume of the reactive zone is given by (Eq. 2): 
Vrz = VZVI + Vsand + Vp    (2) 
Ideally, a reactive zone is clogged when Vp is completely filled with retained solutes, 
suspended particles and/or in-situ generated species. However, clogging is usually observed 
only at the entrance zone of Fe0 systems (Mackenzie et al., 1999; Kaplan and Gilmore, 2004; 
O et al., 2009). 
Upon oxidative dissolution and subsequent precipitation, the volume of each corrosion 
product (e.g. Fe3O4; η = 2.08) is higher than that of the original metal (Pilling and Bedworth, 
1923). The excess volume contributing to system clogging is given by Vexcess in Eq. 3 (Caré et 
al., 2012).  
(η - 1) * τZVI*Vsolid = Vexcess    (3) 
Where τZVI (0 ≤ τZVI ≤ 1) is the volumetric fraction of metallic iron relative to the solid phase 
in the bed or the reactive layer. 
The Fe0 filtration system is clogged when the volume Vexcess is equal to the initial inter-
granular voids (Vp).  
(η - 1) * τZVI*Vsolid = Vp    (3a) 
Eq. 4 suggests that, for every η value (i.e. every oxide), Vp is a linear function of τZVI (Fig. 1). 
Negative values of Vp are not considered as they have no physical meaning. In other words, 
Vp < 0 indicates an excess of Fe0 and system clogging occurred before complete Fe0 
depletion. 
4.2 Contaminant accumulation and permeability loss 
The calculations in this work consider solely the initial state (Fe0) and the final state (Fe3O4). 
The kinetics of the corrosion reaction is difficult to access. In the oil industry, the corrosion 
rates of external line pipe are expected to be < 10 μmyr-1 but could increase to up to 700 
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μmyr-1 in the presence of sulfate reducing bacteria (Sherar et al., 2011). In the Fe0 remediation 
industry, no such experience-based guide values have been published. The paramount factors 
determining the corrosion kinetics include: (i) the intrinsic reactivity of Fe
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0 materials, (ii) the 
water chemistry (pH, dissolved O2, nature and extent of contamination) and (iii) water flow 
rate.  
In this section, the occupation of the pore volume by removed Cr (as crystalline Cr2O3) is 
discussed. The evolution of a system initially containing 50 % Fe0 (τZVI = 0.5) is characterized 
as the extent of Fe0 depletion (αZVI) varies from 0 to 100 %. It is assumed that corrosion 
products results solely from Fe0 oxidation by CrVI (Fe0:CrIII = 3:2 or Fe0:Cr2O3 = 3:1). 
Fig. 2 summarizes the results and shows unambiguously that porosity loss due to pore filling 
with insi-situ generated corrosion products is significant. While considering the pore 
occupation by Cr2O3 it is seen that Vp is completely clogged when only 5 % of the initial 
amount of Fe0 has reacted with CrVI to form crystalline Cr2O3. Considering Fe3O4 alone, 
complete clogging occurred when about 75 % of the initial amount of iron is consumed. This 
conclusion seem to underscore the impact of iron corrosion products in filling the initial 
porosity. However, one should remember that water oxidizes Fe0 and contaminants are 
present in trace amounts (Henderson and Demond, 2011; Kümmerer, 2011). Iron oxides 
certainly quantitatively precipitate (at pH > 5.0). In other words, the calculated volume 
occupation by Fe3O4 is very conservative and even unrealistic because strict stoichoimetric 
reduction by Fe0 has never been reported (Gould et al., 1982).  In other words, stoichoimetric 
CrVI reduction by Fe0 is unlikely to occur under environmental conditions. Fig. 2 presents the 
line for a reaction efficiency of 33 % meaning that for 3 moles of dissolved Fe2+, ‘only’ one 
mole induces CrVI reduction. In this case, system clogging is observed just at 20 % Fe0 
consumption. 
The last important issue from Fig. 2 is the representation of the percent consumption of Fe0. 
At αZVI = 0, the system behaves like a pure sand filter. As αZVI increases, the efficiency of the 
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system virtually increases. Fe0 corrosion stops when the residual porosity is zero. Fig. 2 
shows clearly that any Fe
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0-amended sand filter, has to find a compromise between (i) 
increased efficiency by virtue of the Fe0 reactivity and (ii) reduced porosity as result of 
expansive iron corrosion. Fig. 2 suggests that for a system containing 50 % (vol/vol) Fe0, and 
working under anoxic conditions, this optimum system is around 40 %. Given the difference 
in density between Fe0 (7.8 g cm-3) and sand (2.6 g cm-3) the corresponding weight ratio is 
necessarily lower than 1:1 (50 % w/w) which has been commonly tested and used (Miyajima, 
2012). In other words, suitable Fe0/sand systems are yet to be tested. However, it is certain 
that enhanced contaminant removal in Fe0/sand/H2O relative to Fe0/H2O systems is related to 
the delay of particle cementation by virtue of the inert nature of sand.  
5. Concluding remarks 
Decrease of the hydraulic conductivity (permeability loss) in Fe0 filtration systems has not 
been attributed to volumetric expansive iron corrosion. The calculations presented here 
demonstrate that gas (H2) evolution and foreign solid precipitation may not be responsible for 
the majority of permeability loss (Fig. 2). The kinetics and the extent to which permeability 
loss occurs at a given site depends both on the intrinsic reactivity of used Fe0 and on the water 
chemistry. However, it is certain that pure Fe0 filtration systems are not sustainable as little 
room is left for iron corrosion (volumetric expansion). Accordingly, any argumentation that 
sand addition avoid the passivation of the Fe0 surface or acts as buffering agent thanks to 
production of silicic acid is faulty. This evidence can only be acknowledged when the whole 
Fe0 remediation community has considered the overall theory of the system. Without a theory 
of the system, new data will be produced but significant advance in knowledge will not be 
achieved. 
An essential prerequisite for the universal acceptance of Fe0 as a remediation technology is a 
fundamental understanding of processes occurring in Fe0/H2O systems. The introduction of 
this promising technology was based on a false explanation of good experimental 
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observations. The original error was identified and widely presented in the international 
literature since 2007. The scientific community has not yet dealt with the issue and is 
presently virtually divided into two schools: pro and contra “reductive transformation” or 
“adsorption, co-precipitation, size-exclusion”. However, the latter concept was clearly 
presented as a revision of the former. The long-lasting sterile discussion should stop now and 
efforts should focus on developing the chemistry free Fe
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0 technology. 
Acknowledgments 
Thoughtful comments provided by Gatcha Bandjun Nadège (University of Maroua, 
Cameroon) on the draft manuscript are gratefully acknowledged. The manuscript was 
improved by the insightful comments of anonymous reviewers from the International Journal 
of Environmental Pollution and Solutions. 
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 22
Figure 1 555 
556  
0 20 40 60 80 100
0
20
40
60
80
100
 Fe3O4
 γ-FeOOH
 Fe(OH)2
 Fe(OH)3
 Fe(OH)3.3H2O
V p
 / 
[%
]
τZVI / [vol %]
 557 
558 
559 
 
 23
Figure 2 559 
560  
0 20 40 60 80 100
0
20
40
60
80
100  PL (Fe3O4)
 PL (3 Fe3O4)
 PL (Fe3O4 + Cr2O3)
 Fe0 oxidation
X 
/ [
%
]
αZVI / [%]
 561 
562 
563 
564 
 
 
 24
Figure Caption 564 
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570 
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573 
574 
575 
576 
 
Figure 1: Evolution of the residual porosity (Vp) as function of the Fe0 volumetric ratio (τZVI) 
in the reactive zone for various iron corrosion products. It is seen that Fe0 ratios > 
60 % are pure material wastage. The more sustainable systems are those working 
under anoxic conditions (Fe3O4 as major corrosion product). 
 
Figure 2:  Evolution of the porosity loss (PL) and the theoretical extent of iron oxidation as 
function of the % consumed Fe (αZVI) in an anoxic system initially containing 50 
% Fe0 particles (and 50 % quartz). It is assumed that Fe0 is oxidized solely by 
Cr2O72- and produce crystalline Cr2O3. PL is due both to pore filling by Cr2O3 and 
Fe3O4. In one case an efficiency of 33 % is assumed (3 Fe3O4). 
 
 25