Evolution of the West Andean Escarpment at 18BS (N. Chile)
during the last 25 Ma: uplift, erosion and collapse through time
Gerhard Wo¨rner a,*, Dieter Uhlig b, Ingrid Kohler b, Hartmut Seyfried b
aAbteilung Geochemie, GZG Universita¨t Go¨ttingen, Goldschmidtstr. 1, 37077 Go¨ttingen, Germany
bInstitut fu¨r Geologie und Pala¨ontologie, Herdweg 51, 74174 Stuttgart, Germany
Received 15 July 2000; received in revised form 9 March 2001; accepted 13 March 2001
Abstract
The geological record of the Western Andean Escarpment (WARP) reveals episodes of uplift, erosion, volcanism and
sedimentation. The lithological sequence at 18BS comprises a thick pile of Azapa Conglomerates (25–19 Ma), an overlying
series of widespread rhyodacitic Oxaya Ignimbrites (up to 900 m thick, ca. 19 Ma), which are in turn covered by a series of
mafic andesite shield volcanoes. Between 19 and 12 Ma, the surface of the Oxaya Ignimbrites evolved into a large monocline
on the western slope of the Andes. A giant antithetically rotated block (Oxaya Block, 80 km
20 km) formed on this slope at
about 10–12 Ma and resulted in an easterly dip and a reversed drainage on the block’s surface. Morphology, topography and
stratigraphic observations argue for a gravitational cause of this rotation. A ‘‘secondary’’ gravitational collapse (50 km3),
extending 25 km to the west occurred on the steep western front of the Oxaya Block. Alluvial and fluvial sediments (11–2.7
Ma) accumulated in a half graben to the east of the tilted block and were later thrust over by the rocks of the escarpment wall,
indicating further shortening between 8 and 6 Ma. Flatlying Upper Miocene sediments (<5.5 Ma) and the 2.7 Ma Lauca–Pere´z
Ignimbrite have not been significantly shortened since 6 Ma, suggesting that recent uplift is at least partly caused by regional
tilting of the Western Andean slope.
D 2002 Elsevier Science B.V.
Keywords: Central Andes; Western slope; uplift; erosion; sedimentation; volcanism; gravitational collapse
1. Introduction
Understanding the evolution of large mountain
chains, their effect on climate and conversely, the role
of climate in shaping mountain ranges is of prime
interest in understanding the Earth system. The Cen-
tral Andes is an excellent example to study interplays
between tectonic and body forces and effects of
climate, erosion and sedimentation. In addition, proc-
ess, timing and quantification of the Andean uplift
have been an issue of considerable debate. Most of the
observations and arguments derived from studies on
the Altiplano (Lamb et al., 1997), Eastern Cordillera
and sub-Andean ranges (Kley, 1996; Kennan et al.,
1997; Sheffels, 1990, 1995; Schmitz, 1994) or from
transects in the southern Central Andes (Allmendinger
et al., 1997). The Western Andean Escarpment at 18BS
near the ‘‘Arica Bend’’ has received less attention but
provides considerable information on processes, tim-
ing and consequences of uplift in a hyperarid region
(Salas et al., 1966; Mun˜oz and Charrier, 1996). This
western margin of South America is characterized by
0040-1951/02 D 2002 Elsevier Science B.V.
PII: S0040-1951 (01 )00212 -8
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +49-551-393971x72; fax: +49-
551-393982.
E-mail address: Gwoerne@gwdg.de (G. Wo¨rner).
www.elsevier.com/locate/tecto
Tectonophysics 345 (2002) 183–198
Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license.
Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license.
a difference in elevation from the trench at 7000 m
depth to > 5000 m height in the Western Cordillera
over 250 km lateral distance. At the same time, the
region is characterized by a dry desert with an average
present day rainfall at the coast of only 0.5 mm/year.
There is paleoclimatic evidence (Gregory-Wodzicki,
2000; Alpers and Brimhall, 1988; Sillitoe and McKee,
1996) that a hyperarid climate was established
between 20 and 15 Ma with an intermittent globally
controlled less arid period around 7 Ma (Gaupp et al.,
1999; Do¨rr et al., 1994; Jensen et al., 1995; May et al.,
1999). In consequence, erosion has been extremely
slow over the past 20 Ma even though tectonic move-
ments created a steep morphology.
In this study, we present an account of uplift,
erosion, sedimentation, gravitational collapse and
volcanism on the West Andean Escarpment (WARP,
Fig. 1) since 30 Ma, based on field mapping, aerial
photographs, satellite images, sedimentological studies
and geochronology. Ar–Ar ages of the stratigraphic
units described here are given in Wo¨rner et al. (2000b).
2. Geological background
The active western continental margin of central
South America is characterized by subduction of the
Farallo´n–Nazca plate and arc magmatism since Juras-
sic times. Convergence has been variable with 5 cm/
year at 60–30 Ma and increased rapidly to 15 cm/year
at around 25–30 Ma (Pardo-Casas and Molnar, 1987;
Somoza, 1998). The angle of convergence also
changed at that time and is presently trench-orthogo-
nal in the Arica Bend with a convergence rate of 8 cm/
year (Somoza, 1998). The dip of the subducting
Nazca plate today varies from less than 10B to around
30B underneath the Central Andes (Cahill and Isacks,
1992). Active subduction zone magmatism is only
observed in sectors of relatively steep subduction,
whereas magmatism is absent in the flat-slab regions
(Barazangi and Isacks, 1976; Coira et al., 1982;
Jordan et al., 1983; Kay and Abbruzzi, 1996).
Proterozoic metamorphic basement rocks and over-
lying Permian (?) to Lower Tertiary rocks are exposed
in the steep escarpment towards the Western Cordillera
to the east of Arica (Wo¨rner et al., 2000a). Jurassic to
Early Cretaceous tholeiitic arc rocks and marine back
arc strata constitute the Coastal Cordillera. Magmatism
shifted some 100-km from a western position in the
Jurassic to the present Western Cordillera in Oligocene
times (Coira et al., 1982). This observation was inter-
preted by Rutland (1971) to reflect tectonic erosion at
the leading upper plate edge (see also Scheuber et al.,
1994). However, it is likely that changing slab dip also
contributes to changing arc location. In fact, the arc
widened between 100 and 80 Ma, narrowed around 35
Ma and widened again at around 20 Ma (Coira et al.,
1982; Scheuber et al., 1994). Thus, the distribution of
magmatism in space and time is consistent with both
tectonic erosion and changing dip of the slab.
Prior to Andean uplift that commenced from 30 to
25 Ma ago (Isacks, 1988), northernmost Chile was
characterized by continental sedimentation, andesitic
volcanism and abundant volcaniclastic sediments. The
fluvial and lacustrine facies of these sedimentary rocks
and the abundance of andesitc clastic rocks indicate
reworking by running water and deposition in shallow
lakes. However, since at least 25 Ma, up to 1000 m of
coarse-grained sediments (Fig. 2) started to accumu-
late over some 40 km E–W distance between the
Coastal Cordillera and the western slope of the Andes.
These molasse-type sediments, assigned to the Azapa
Formation in the working area (Salas et al., 1966), are
observed all along the Western Andean slope and
indicate the initiation of Andean uplift and crustal
thickening. The present thickness of the crust is around
70 km (Isacks, 1988; Wigger et al., 1994; Beck et al.,
1996; Benjamin et al., 1987; Tosdal et al., 1985; Hart-
ley et al., 2000).
3. Warp evolution between 30 and 19 Ma: uplift,
erosion and crustal melting
The evolution of uplift and erosion of the Western
Andean Escarpment (WARP) in the working area is
best described by using the extensive series of ignim-
brites of the Oxaya Formation as a morphological and
Fig. 1. (a) 3-D Landsat image of the West Andean Escarpment between Arica and the Western Cordillera. (b) Topographical cross-section and
geological profile along the transect A–B in (a). Note that the normal faults bounding the Oxaya Block on its eastern side have been overthrust
during younger tectonic movements and thus can only be inferred.
G. Wo¨rner et al. / Tectonophysics 345 (2002) 183–198184
G. Wo¨rner et al. / Tectonophysics 345 (2002) 183–198 185
temporal reference. The most precise age available for
the Oxaya Formation are those of Wo¨rner et al.
(2000b) who reported Ar/Ar sanidine and biotite pla-
teau of ages 22.72F0.15 Ma at the base to 19.38F
0.02 Ma at the top. The three thick uppermost ignim-
brites representing 90% of the volume, however, erup-
ted very close in time, probably within less than a
million years (Wo¨rner et al., 2000b).
3.1. Azapa conglomerates (25–23 Ma)
The ignimbrites are underlain bymore than 500m of
sediments of the Azapa Formation (Fig. 2). These are
predominantly coarse-grained, river-dominated allu-
vial fan and ephemeral-braided river deposits. Their
direction of transport was from the Andean slope in the
east towards the Coastal Cordillera. Distally, they grade
into fluvio-lacustrine and salar sediments in the present
Longitudinal Valley. Because the sediment source is
the N–S-directed western margin of the Proto-Alti-
plano, the resulting clastic wedge also has a N–S trend.
The clastic wedge has a cross-sectional area of ca. 10–
12 km2 and in the N–S extension, this translates into a
volume of 10–12 km3 per km Andean slope. This
clastic wedge overlies a prominent unconformity on
older Jurassic to early Cretaceous sedimentary, vol-
canic and plutonic rocks. The paleosurface that was
covered by these younger sediments is exposed in all
the deep valleys in northernmost Chile (Fig. 1) and can
be correlated to southern Peru (Tosdal et al., 1985). It
had a steep mountainous topography in the east,
whereas in the west, the unconformity is represented
Fig. 2. Summary of stratigraphic units from the Coastal Cordillera to the Chilean Altiplano at 18BS based on field evidence and Ar–Ar dating
(modified from Wo¨rner et al., 2000b).
G. Wo¨rner et al. / Tectonophysics 345 (2002) 183–198186
by the eastward tilted flat surface of the Coastal
Cordillera (see cross-section in Fig. 1b).
Taking the accumulation rate of 0.4 mm/year for the
ca. 7-Ma-old Arcas Fan in northern Chile as a reference
(Kiefer et al., 1997), we obtain from the observed
thickness below the ca. 23 Ma oldest ignimbrite a time
span of about 1.25 Ma for deposition. Considering that
at 23Ma, the climate may have been wetter than during
the accumulation of the Arcas Fan (Alpers and Brim-
hall, 1988; Gregory-Wodzicki, 2000); this should be a
minimum estimate. As a conservative number, we
place the beginning of sediment accumulation of the
Azapa Formation at 25 Ma. In other words, a sediment
volume of about 10 km3 was transferred from the
Western Andean slope to the Longitudinal Valley per
km N–S direction in only 1 million year. Considering
its size, extent, homogeneity in facies and stratigraphic
position, this clastic event documents a strongly
increased topographic gradient and thus, initial uplift
of the Andes.
Provenance analysis identifies a source area, with
rocks equivalent to those exposed today in the upper
WARP region, which includes the Belen metamorphic
basement, Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous volcanic,
sedimentary and plutonic rocks of the Livilcar Forma-
tion (Salas et al., 1966) as well as altered volcanic and
sedimentary rocks of the Lupica Formation (Fig. 2).
Thus, initial surface uplift in the Andes commenced
around 30–25 Ma (see also Isacks, 1988; Sempere´ et
al., 1990). This uplift coincides with a phase of major
plate reorganization in the Pacific region around 28
Ma (Hey, 1977), increased rates of frontal conver-
gence at the South American plate margin (Pardo-
Casas and Molnar, 1987; Somoza, 1998) and opening
of the Drake Passage at 23 Ma (Staudigel et al., 1985;
Beu et al., 1997). Probably, the cold Humboldt Cur-
rent along the western coast of southern South Amer-
ica was also initiated at that time (Lawver and
Gahagan, 1998). Parallel to the tectonic events, the
evolving western Andean margin became increasingly
arid and may have reached hyperaridity by 15 Ma
(Gregory-Wodzicki, 2000; Alpers and Brimhall,
1988). At least two main factors contributed to the
prevailing aridity in this area since the Upper Mio-
cene: (1) the Andean mountain range acting as a bar-
rier, even as low as 2000 m (Gregory-Wodzicki, 2000),
for moisture from the east and (2) a stable inversion
layer over the cold Humboldt Current in the Pacific
that inhibits orographic rain fall along the western An-
dean margin.
3.2. Oxaya Ignimbrites (22.7–19.4 Ma)
Uplift and erosion were interrupted by the deposi-
tion of four extensive ignimbrite sheets, up to 1100 m
in total thickness. These form most of the present
surface on the Western Andean slope (e.g. Pampa
Oxaya), except where it is disturbed by tectonism
(see below). The Oxaya Ignimbrites (22.7–19.4 Ma)
can be traced in an E–W direction over 130 km from
the Western Cordillera atf4600 m a.s.l. to the Coastal
Cordillera. At the coast, the ignimbrites are less
welded but still reach 300-m thickness near Arica.
N–S correlation of the Oxaya Ignimbrites is possible
for some 300 km from southern Peru (f17BS), where
they represent the Huaylillas Formation (Tosdal et al.,
1981, 1985), to south of the Chilean Camarones Valley
(f20BS). The areal extent and measured thickness
suggest a volume of >3000 km3.
Thick alluvial fans overlain by extensive ignim-
brites are known over all of the Western Andean slope
in southern Peru (Moquegua Fm, Tosdal et al., 1981,
1985) and in regions further south (Lahsen, 1982). In
the south, however, the overlying ignimbrites are pro-
gressively younger (15–17 Ma at 21BS, Francis and
Rundle, 1976; 6–12 Ma at 24BS, deSilva, 1989) while
towards the north, they appear to be older (>25 Ma; see
review by James and Sacks, 1999).
While the onset of surface uplift appears to be
reasonably well constrained, it is still uncertain how
much of the present uplift was achieved at what time.
Paleobotanical evidence summarized by Gregory-
Wodzicki (2000) suggests that the Altiplano was no
higher than 1300 m at 20 Ma and had not been uplifted
to half its modern elevation by 10.7 Ma. However, the
errors on these paleoelevation estimates are large
(Gregory-Wodzicki, 2000).
4. 19–12 Ma: andesite volcanism, tilting, block
rotation and gravitational collapse
4.1. Andesite magmatism
Ignimbrite volcanism (22.7–19.4) was immediate-
ly succeeded by large andesitic volcanoes dated at
G. Wo¨rner et al. / Tectonophysics 345 (2002) 183–198 187
20.33F0.38, 20.02F0.3, 18.70F0.80, 15.07F0.12
and 9.18F0.33 (Wo¨rner et al., 2000b). These andesite
shields occur along a N–S trend from 17BS to 20BS,
approximately covering the N–S extent of the Oxaya
Ignimbrites (Zapahuira Fm, Fig. 2). These andesite
volcanoes provide characteristic detritus to the Upper
Miocene conglomeratic Diablo Formation on the lower
WARP slope, where they appear as a gray cover on the
ignimbrite surface in Fig. 1. Largemafic andesite shield
volcanoes of similar age are also known to overly
regional ignimbrites further south (see Wo¨rner et al.,
2000b) and in southernmost Peru (volcanics of the
lower Barroso Fm overlying ignimbrites of the Huay-
lillas Fm, Tosdal et al., 1981, 1985).
4.2. Regional tilting
Continued uplift resulted in westward tilting and
significant steepening of the WARP and the Oxaya
surface. This movement formed the giant monocline
known over several hundreds of kilometers on the
Western Altiplano margin (Isacks, 1988; Lamb and
Hoke, 1997; Hartley et al., 2000). The Oxaya Ignim-
brites, at the northern and southern margins of the
study area, now form a gently sloping surface with a
westerly tilt of 3B between the top of the Western
Cordillera and the coast at Arica (Figs. 1 and 3). This
‘‘Oxaya Surface’’ is dissected by a parallel (mostly
fossil) drainage system and several deep active valleys.
The amount of postdepositional tilt of this surface
is difficult to establish, because the depositional angle
of the Oxaya Ignimbrites is unknown. The morpho-
logical (not present topographical) offset between the
base of the Azapa conglomerates in the west and the
top of the unconformity on Jurassic and Late Creta-
ceous rocks further east give a minimum depositional
angle prior to deposition (and tilting) of the Oxaya
Ignimbrites. This angle is 1B at maximum. Given the
present slope of the Oxaya Ignimbrites, an additional
tilt of about 1.5–2B must have occurred after their
deposition. This estimate is in accordance with a
similar westerly tilt proposed by Lamb and Hoke
(1997). Over the lateral distance from the coast to
the present Western Cordillera, this tilt translates into
an uplift of about 1700–2500 m for the eastern
margin of the ramp in the Western Cordillera since
19 Ma. This is in accordance with the estimate by
Gregory-Wodzicki (2000).
A gently sloping western flank of the Andes is also
known from north to south of the Arica Bend area.
However, at the Arica Bend, the distance between the
coast and Western Altiplano is smaller and thus the
slope is steeper than anywhere else on the Western
flank of the Andes.
Regional tilt was also postulated by Hartley et al.
(2000) for uplift of the western Andean margin further
south. However, their model differs from ours in that
we do not invoke the tectonically eroded and under-
plated forearc material as the only cause for tilt and
uplift. The volume of eroded and underplated material
could explain only the crustal thickening directly in the
forearc arc and not the observed increase in crustal
thickness below the western Altiplano. We rather con-
cur with Isacks (1988) and Lamb and Hoke (1997) in
inferring middle to lower crustal ductile flow from the
east. This is more consistent with the timing of uplift,
which was accentuated in the Miocene, whereas tec-
tonic erosion at the leading edge of the South American
plate is very likely a more continuous process from
Jurassic to Present times (Giese et al., 1999).
We therefore conclude that regional tilting rather
than movement along discrete fault zones is the
dominant process responsible for the uplift and the
gentle slope along the western Andean margin.
This conclusion is in conflict with the notion of
Mun˜oz and Charrier (1996) who described a zone of
reverse faulting as the ‘‘Western Andean Thrust Belt’’
and attributed the uplift of the Western Cordillera to
movements along these faults. They argue that this
tectonic activity falls into the age range between 15
Fig. 3. (a) A series of W–E topographic profiles across the Oxaya Block stacked from north to south. Each profile represents a ca. 5 km swath
of the digital elevation model, which is based on the 1/250000 topographic map. Lighter shading depicts the erosion relative to the swath
surface. The profiles show that the Oxaya structure is not related to increased uplift of the Altiplano as would be expected if the structure were
formed by tectonic stacking. (b) Detailed profile across the center of the Oxaya structure. The dashed line represents the reference line for
undisturbed slope of the Oxaya surface to the north of the rotated Oxaya Block. Note the tilted surface and the balance between areas above and
below the reference line. Therefore, there is no net uplift related to this structure.
G. Wo¨rner et al. / Tectonophysics 345 (2002) 183–198188
G. Wo¨rner et al. / Tectonophysics 345 (2002) 183–198 189
and 5 Ma and that it is related to the uplift of the
western Altiplano and the formation of the Oxaya
Block (see below).
We agree with the age estimate, which is based on
the fact that the age of the thrusting is younger than the
Huaylas sediments (10–3Ma, see below). We disagree
that these relatively small thrusts can explain the uplift
of the western Altiplano and that this uplift took place
only in that time range (for further discussion of this
topic, see below). We concur with Lamb et al. (1997)
and Isacks (1988) that the major process of crustal
thickening below the western Altiplano is regional
tilting and lower crustal ductile flow from east to west.
4.3. Block rotation
Between the towns of Socoroma and Tignamar
(Fig. 1a), the tilted Oxaya surface is modified by a
giant stair case topography (Figs. 1 and 3). The satellite
image identifies an area of about 1600 km2 with a
clearly distinct morphological character and drainage
pattern (Figs. 1a and 4). The surface on the Oxaya
Ignimbrites here dips to the east against the slope of the
Andean flank at an angle of 2.3B (Figs. 1b, 3, 4b) and
defines the outline of the ‘‘Oxaya Block’’. This block,
comprising the Oxaya Formation and its upper surface
is thus tilted antithetically against the Western Andean
slope. The western limit of the Oxaya Block is close to
the Ausipar reverse fault (Figs. 1b and 4), which has a
displacement of about 200 m as judged from observed
displacement of strata. However, we note that the
Oxaya Block and the Ausipar fault may not be directly
related. This is because the offset of the reverse
Ausipar fault is larger to the north of the Oxaya Block
(as exposed in the Lluta Valley, Garcı´a et al., 1996)
compared to further south in the Azapa Valley. To the
east, the bounding fault is obscured by sediments and
volcanic rocks, erosion and younger reverse faulting
(see below). A total throw of the Oxaya Ignimbrites at
the eastern border of the block, compared to correla-
tives in the Western Cordillera, is about 1500 m (Figs.
1b and 3). The morphological offset, however, is
enhanced to 2000 m by about 600 m as estimated from
displacement along the eastbounding reverse faults
(see below).
The creation of the eastward dipping surface against
the Andean western margin created accommodation
space for the Huaylas Fm (Salas et al., 1966), which
consists of alluvial and fluvial braided stream sedi-
ments >200 m thick (Fig. 4a). The age of this for-
mation is constrained between 10.6 and 2.7 Ma by an
intercalated ignimbrite (10.55F0.05, Wo¨rner et al.,
2000b), by mammalian fossils (8–9 Ma, Salinas et
al., 1991) and by the Lauca–Pere´z Ignimbrite (2.71F
0.01, Wo¨rner et al., 2000b) overlying the Huaylas se-
diments. The base of the Huaylas Formation is an ero-
sional surface with both steep morphology and smooth
onlap on eroded Oxaya Ignimbrites.
The age of the Oxaya Block rotation is older than,
or synchronous with, the oldest overlying sediments
(i.e. >10.6 Ma) plus some extra time to allow for
erosion. An upper age limit of rotation is given by the
age of a rootless lava flow, which is exposed on the
Pampa del Torro Muerto (TOM in Fig. 1b) and
obviously was tilted together with the Oxaya surface.
This lava flow was dated by Mun˜oz and Charrier
(1996) at 11.4F0.3 (K–Ar whole rock age). As a
cautious estimate, we conclude that the Oxaya Block
began rotating in the short time span between 12 and
10.6 Ma.
The maximum age for the initial drainage system
and valley incision on the Oxaya Block is clearly older
than its rotation: satellite image and aerial photographs
(Figs. 1 and 4) show a network of drainage on the
Oxaya Block surface that is morphologically directed
towards the west but topographically inclined towards
the east. The Cardones (Fig. 1) and Rio Negro valleys
are the best examples (Fig. 4). These valleys had their
slope reversed and became inactivated by the Oxaya
Block rotation and thus are older than at least ca.
10.6–12 Ma.
The Oxaya Block has been recognized as a unique
morphotectonic feature on the western slope of the
Andes, which is otherwise characterized by a smooth
Fig. 4. (a) Detail of the surface of the southern part of the Oxaya Block showing extensional grabens and the tilted Negro Valley. Note that the
drainage pattern changes from parallel and undifferentiated on the westerly-dipping front of the block to subdue on the easterly-dipping surface.
The upper course of the Azapa Valley shows a large amphitheatere-shaped collapse scar, suggesting that valley cutting in this arid region is
accompanied by catastrophic valley flank failures. (b) Profiles along the thalweg and the surface along the Negro Valley, showing the rotation of
the drainage system.
G. Wo¨rner et al. / Tectonophysics 345 (2002) 183–198190
G. Wo¨rner et al. / Tectonophysics 345 (2002) 183–198 191
continuous monocline. Its eastward tilted surface has
been isolated and protected from erosion and there-
fore, represents one of the oldest surfaces on Earth.
However, the cause for the rotation of the Oxaya
Block is unclear. In the next section, we will discuss
its possible origin.
4.4. The origin of the Oxaya Block
There are two fundamentally different models to
explain the Oxaya Block: the conventional interpreta-
tion is that the block represents a tectonic ramp
structure and is bound by two west-vergent thrust
systems (Garcı´a et al., 1999). Alternatively the Oxaya
Block may result from antithetical rotation of a giant
gravitational block due to an oversteepening Western
Andean slope in the Arica Bend area (Wo¨rner et al.,
1999).
The first interpretation is based on the observation
of west-vergent thrusts (‘‘Western Andean Thrust
Belt’’, Mun˜oz and Charrier, 1996; see also Garcı´a et
al., 1996). A ramp structure would create accommo-
dation space for the Huaylas sediments as a piggyback
basin. Such an interpretation has several problems.
First, such a ramp structure would produce much
steeper limbs as can be modeled by an area-balanced
cross-section (R. Allmendinger, personal communica-
tion, 2000). Shallower angles are more consistent with
regional gravitational sagging. Another problem is the
presumed short duration of the rotation (10.6–12 Ma),
which is more consistent with a gravitational event
than continuous tectonic movements. Mun˜oz and
Charrier (1996) also argued that the reverse faults
caused a major part of the uplift of the western
Altiplano. We see two problems with this interpreta-
tion: (i) the amount of uplift (2000 m) is not explained
by the observed vertical throw along the faults (see
below) and (ii) the morphotectonic structure of the
Oxaya Block is restricted to the Arica bend area,
whereas uplift and a gently dipping western margin
of the Altiplano is observed for many 100 km N–S
along the Western Andean slope. While we do not
dismiss westward thrusting along the western Andean
margin, we observe that regional uplift is not confined
to the existence of a ramp-and-thrust structure.
The age of displacement is not consistent with the
interpretation that the observed thrusts are related to
the major portion of uplift of the western Altiplano:
Huaylas sediments are younger than the block rota-
tion, yet they are overthrusted by the reverse faults of
the ‘‘Western Andean Thrust Belt’’. What we see, as
thrust faults then will be younger than the sediments
and the rotation and thus, cannot be responsible for
the formation of the basin in which the sediments
accumulated. By the same token, the reverse faults
can only be related to uplift that occurred after the
deposition of the Huaylas sediments, i.e. < 2.7 Ma.
The amount of displacement is also limited: while
the lateral displacement in ramp and thrust structures
is difficult to measure, the vertical displacement is
given by the offset of stratigraphically correlated
strata. The difference in elevation of the top of the
Oxaya Ignimbrites (from 2880 to 3100 m) and the
Huaylas sediments (from 3100 to 3250 m), each
measured to the west and east of the main thrust fault,
on the east of the Oxaya Block, indicate a maximum
surface uplift of 200 m along this fault. Two other
reverse faults that are, however, rather discontinuous
and less extensive regionally, are observed to the east
of the main thrust (Garcı´a et al., 1996). Their addi-
tional vertical uplift is difficult to determine precisely,
but as a conservative estimate, we assume similar
offsets for all three faults. Thus, it is concluded that
the maximum vertical offset by the Belen–Tignamar
fault system (Garcı´a et al., 1996) is at 600 m, but
likely less.
By contrast, the offset of the Lauca Ignimbrite
between the center of the Hualyas basin and its
exposures on the andesites of the Zapahuira Fm (from
3080 to 3200 m) is only 120 m. It is most likely due to
onlap deposition of the highly mobile pyroclastic flow
on higher ground, as is frequently observed for this
deposit throughout the area. Therefore, surface uplift
along the reverse faults did not affect the Lauca
Ignimbrite and is thus older than 2.7 Ma and younger
than 10.6 Ma (see above).
In the light of these observations, an alternative
explanation for the Oxaya Block, i.e. a large gravita-
tional rotation, is considered. The following points
argue for a large gravitational sag-structure:
(1) The Oxaya Block formed in the Arica bend
area, where the Western Andean slope from the coast
to the Western Cordillera is by far the steepest. The
topography in this region produces a strong negative
component in Gephart’s (1994) antisymmetric resid-
ual in the overall Andean topographic symmetry. It is
G. Wo¨rner et al. / Tectonophysics 345 (2002) 183–198192
thus characterized by a topographic anomaly. While
the present slope could be steeper than at the time
when the Oxaya Block formed, we would argue that
the particular location at the Arica Bend would have
caused a relatively steep slope also in the geological
past.
(2) The short duration of movement (less than 2
Ma) for the Oxaya Block rotation is consistent with a
gravitational event rather than long-lasting move-
ments along reverse faults of a ramp and thrust struc-
ture.
(3) With reference to the slope of the Oxaya sur-
face to the north and south of the Oxaya Block, the
uplifted frontal part of the structure is geometrically
balanced by the downward movement of the block
(Fig. 3c). Thus, there is no net uplift related to the
structure.
(4) The Oxaya Block has its center at the altitude of
the Cardones Valley. However, the Ausipar fault has a
larger displacement, north of the Lluta Valley, com-
pared to the area south of the Azapa Valley. Thus, the
Oxaya Block and the displacement of the Ausipar
reverse fault are not directly related.
A problem with our interpretation of the Oxaya
Block as a gravitational structure is that the observed
frontal thrust plane has a smaller displacement than
the offset between the Western Cordillera and the
Oxaya Block (1500 m, see above). This difference
in movement between the east- and westbounding
fault zones would argue for internal deformation of
the Oxaya Block as depicted in Fig. 1b. In addition,
we do not observe a basal decollement connecting the
Ausipar fault with the presumed normal fault on the
eastern side of the block. In this respect, the basal fault
of the Oxaya Block in Figs. 1b and 5 is speculative. It
would be important for our model to document the
location and nature of the related normal faults at the
eastern margin of the Oxaya Block. However, if the
model and the sequence of events is correct, then
these faults are necessarily obscured by retreating
Fig. 5. Schematic cross section summarizing the topography and evolution on the Western Andean Escarpment, for discussion, see text.
G. Wo¨rner et al. / Tectonophysics 345 (2002) 183–198 193
erosion of the steep escarpment, sedimentation of the
Huaylas sediments and, most importantly, the younger
reverse faults.
Our interpretation of a large tilted structure in an
overall tectonic regime of convergence and regional
tilting is consistent with conclusions derived by Hart-
ley et al. (2000) based on their tectonic and sedimen-
tological analysis of the northern Chilean forearc.
Isacks (1988), Lamb et al. (1997) and Lamb and
Hoke (1997) also argued for regional westward tilting
of the Western Andean slope to explain the uplift of
the western Altiplano. These models do not preclude,
but rather, imply distributed reverse faulting. The
mechanical model of Bailey (1998) also predicts
gravitationally induced thrusting on oversteepened
orogenic slope and ductile flow within the crust when
rheologic properties of the crust are favorable. Rheo-
logical weakening due to heating by extensive mag-
matic activity is certainly attained in the Andean arc
region.
One more observation in favor of a gravitational sag
structure comes from offshore geophysical investiga-
tions: the CINCA (1995) study showed the existence
of large N–S oriented sagged blocks in the forearc
>30
15 km in size (von Huene et al., 1999). These
were interpreted to result from frontal (and basal)
tectonic erosion of the outer forearc and subsequent
antithetical rotation. The Oxaya Block may be an
unusual onshore equivalent of these structures.
By weighing the above arguments, we prefer the
interpretation of the Oxaya Block as a large gravita-
tional structure.
4.5. Giant landslides
The Oxaya Block rotation had several consequen-
ces: (1) the old E–W oriented drainage was reversed,
the upper course of the valleys became clogged with
sediment and erosion all but ended on the block
surface, (2) extensional structures formed on the block,
in particular, near its western front (Figs. 1 and 4) and
(3) the development of an oversteepened western front
of the block. The ‘‘Lluta Collapse’’ (Figs. 1 and 5)
formed as a result of these circumstances. It is a giant
landslide that covers an area of about 600 km2,
displaced 50 km3 of rock and its basal decollement is
exposed on the sides of the Quebrada Lluta for 20 km.
This landslide mass is characterized by large tilted
blocks up to 800 m thick and an irregular surface,
which in some places rises up to 200 m over the
undisturbed surface of the Oxaya Ignimbrite. The
collapse left an amphitheatre-shaped scar, east of the
Pampa Plazuela (Fig. 1). In size and origin, it is almost
identical to the Quaternary landslide described by
Philip and Ritz (1999), which formed at a frontal scarp
of a thrust fault. The age of the Lluta collapse is
younger than the Oxaya Block rotation (from 12 to
10.6 Ma) because it developed at its steep frontal face
probably facilitated by the extensional structures in
that area. The collapse is also older than the presently
deeply incised Lluta Valley that dissects it. A Proto-
Lluta Valley, however, already existed at 2.7 Ma when
it was entered by the Lauca–Pere´z Ignimbrite (see
below). Accordingly, we place the Lluta landslide at
5–10 Ma. This brackets the period of increased
humidity at 7 Ma identified by Gaupp et al. (1999;
and reference therein). The presence of abundant
ground water at the time of the Lluta collapse is also
indicated by the formation of lacustrine diatomaceous
sediments on top of the chaotic mass of the landslide
and soft deformation of fine-grained clay material at its
base.
This makes the Lluta collapse one of the largest
and most probably the oldest paleolandslide recog-
nized in a continental setting (cf. Philip and Ritz,
1999).
5. 12 and 2.7 Ma: continued uplift and increased
aridity
Oxaya Ignimbrites (from 23 to 19 Ma) and Mio-
cene andesites of the Zapahuira Formation (19–9 Ma)
are thrust onto sediments of the Huaylas Fm (from 2.7
to V10.6 Ma) (Garcı´a et al., 1996). Age equivalents of
the Huaylas Formation are found as flatlying lake and
salar sediments of the Lauca Formation (Ko¨tt et al.,
1995) and the Allane basin on the Chilean Altiplano.
Ko¨tt et al. (1995) have shown that the >6.6–2.7-Ma-
old sediments in the Lauca Formation were not sig-
nificantly affected by tectonism. The sedimentary
facies and environment suggest little change in cli-
mate, elevation and provenance since 7 Ma (Gaupp
et al., 1999). The westernmost Altiplano has therefore
remained tectonically relatively inactive and has not
recorded major climatic changes since the Upper
G. Wo¨rner et al. / Tectonophysics 345 (2002) 183–198194
Miocene. At the same time, tectonic movements
persisted at the WARP and Western Cordillera (Garcı´a
et al., 1999 and reference therein).
At 2.7 Ma, the West Andean Escarpment was
characterized by a tectonically and morphologically
differentiated staircase topography with small N–S
striking basins filled by fluvial and lacustrine sedi-
ments. This landscape was sealed by the 2.7 Ma
Lauca–Pere´z Ignimbrite (Schro¨der and Wo¨rner, 1996;
Wo¨rner et al., 2000b), which originated from an incon-
spicuous caldera near the active volcanic front. It
descended the large valleys (Lluta, Cardones and
possibly Azapa) and entered the Pacific Ocean through
the Lluta Valley near Arica, where it is found in the
valley bottom at sea level.
6. 2.7 Ma to Recent: further incision and collapsing
valley flanks
While the Cardones Valley (Fig. 1) has been
largely inactive since it was filled by the Lauca–Pere´z
Ignimbrite, the Azapa and Lluta Valleys grew sub-
stantially by headward erosion. These valleys are
deeply incised into the Oxaya Block, reaching their
maximum relief of 1700-m (Figs. 1 and 4). In the
middle course of Quebrada Lluta, the Lauca–Pere´z
Ignimbrite is found as erosional remnants some 800 m
above their present valley bottom, constraining inci-
sion since 2.7 Ma to about 0.3 mm/year. Precursors to
these large valleys, however, must have existed
because the Lauca–Pere´z Ignimbrite is found in the
valley bottom at the coast and even several tens of
kilometers inland. This observation suggests that by
2.7 Ma, the Lluta Valley had already begun to cut into
the Oxaya surface and probably had developed to a
stage represented by the inactivated Cardones Valley.
Increased valley incision since 2.7 Ma was likely
associated with increased runoff from the high vol-
canic peaks and the Western Cordillera due to the
onset of glaciation at that time (Clapperton, 1990).
Valley flanks of the lower Lluta and Azapa Valleys
are smooth and inclined at angles of 10–20B. These
smooth surfaces are left after repeated slope failure.
Blocks of up to 400 m in thickness and several kilo-
meters in length are found in many areas. Their mor-
phology suggests sagging to the valley bottom along
smoothly inclined surfaces. A major landslide of up to
1 km3 and unknown age (but 2.7 Ma) dammed the
Azapa River, causing accumulation of several tens of
meters of lacustrine sediments (Seyfried et al., 2000).
In the region near the small village of Socoroma (Fig.
1), the landscape is presently sagging over several
km2. This causes disruption of agriculture and forced
repeated correction of long-distance irrigation chan-
nels.
7. Summary and plate tectonic interpretation
The Western Escarpment of the Central Andes at
18BS is a good example of an oversteepened mountain
range front in a forearc environment of an active
continental margin. The overall tectonic regime is
convergent and has resulted in tectonic thickening,
uplift and erosion. However, the evolution of the
mountain front may not only be controlled by plate
tectonic forces acting directly onto the crust. Uplift and
tectonism may be decoupled from the plate movement
reference as suggested by Hartley et al. (2000) and the
effects of plate reorganization in the Pacific may also
have played a role.
Thus, we may be able to distinguish endogenic,
plate-driven effects from more local, exogenic effects.
(1) Subduction of the East Pacific spreading center,
below the North American plate in the Upper Oligo-
cene (28 Ma, Hey, 1977), resulted in Farallon plate
breakup, formation of the Nazca plate and increased
and increasingly frontal subduction rates.
(2) After the opening of the Drake Passage (23 Ma)
and a change in ocean circulation, which established
the cold S–N Humboldt Current by around 15 Ma,
cold water and related cold coastal air masses increas-
ingly inhibited orographic rain and greatly reduced
precipitation inland on the Western Andean slope (see
discussion in Gregory-Wodzicki, 2000).
The response and geological record on the Western
Andean slope to these developments are documented
in the following stages of the WARP evolution: (i) a
thick conglomeratic wedge evolved between 25 and 23
Ma on the Western Andean slope, (ii) mafic volcanism
occurred already at 23 Ma in Bolivia (Tambillo and
Chiar Khollu basalts, Lamb et al., 1997) and western
Argentina (Kay et al., 1999) at the same time when
uplift, erosion and enhanced sedimentation occurred
along the West Andean Escarpment, and (iii) from 2 to
G. Wo¨rner et al. / Tectonophysics 345 (2002) 183–198 195
3 Ma after the onset of uplift, erosion and clastic
sedimentation, large volumes of ignimbrites were
erupted between 23 and 19 Ma, which where imme-
diately followed by mafic andesites.
We explain the observed sequence as follows:
(1) Flat slab subduction between 35 and 24 Ma
needs to be inferred to explain the absence of magma-
tism during that time. Evidence for strong erosion and
the deposition of a clastic wedge indicates an increased
topographic gradient and thus crustal uplift. This may
be caused by crustal shortening due to increased
tectonic coupling between the upper and lower plate
(Allmendinger et al., 1997).
(2) Slab steepening is inferred to explain mafic
volcanism in the east at around 23 Ma and crustal
melting with large volume ignimbrites in the west.
This will have allowed the influx, from east to west, of
hot asthenospheric material below the western Andean
crust. Heating of the lower crust by hot asthenosphere
and advective heating by mantle-derived melts are
sufficient to cause a short period of crustal melting
(Tanner et al., 1999).
(3) Geochronological data (Coira et al., 1982; All-
mendinger et al., 1997; Wo¨rner et al., 2000b, and
references therein) suggest that the arc zone widened
and the arc front migrated to the west in mid-Miocene
times. This resulted in a large volume ofmafic andesites
from the mantle wedge. By 18–15Ma, the new arc had
established itself once the slab had steepened and the
crustal melting zone could be passed bymafic magmas.
(4) Further uplift along the Western Andean slope
between 17BS and 20BS since then is related to only
minor amounts of forearc shortening while at the same
time, deformation and shortening migrated to the east
into the sub-Andean belt (Sheffels, 1990, 1995; All-
mendinger et al., 1997). Absence of sufficient crustal
shortening in the forearc then suggests lower crustal
flow from the east to explain further uplift (Isacks,
1988).
(5) Tectonic processes, in combination with the
evolution of the ocean currents in the eastern pacific
during the Miocene, led to an increased aridification
from about 20 Ma onwards (Abele, 1989; Beu et al.,
1997; Lawver and Gahagan, 1998), decreasing erosion
and morphological oversteepening. As a result, the
Western Andean slope thus appears to be in topo-
graphical disequilibrium, which results in gravitational
movements at several scales, from the giant rotated
Oxaya Block, large landslides (Lluta and Azapa col-
lapse), valley flank failure to today’s local sagging of
irrigated farmlands.
Similar such rock sequences are observed through-
out the Western Andean slope at different times.
Therefore, if such thick conglomeratic sediments
coupled with overlying voluminous ignimbrites are
taken as an indicator of crustal thickening, slab
steepening and crustal melting, then these processes
have clearly been asynchronous along the strike of the
Central Andes (Noblet et al., 1996).
Acknowledgements
This study benefited greatly from thorough reviews
by Rick Allmendinger and Etienne Jaillard. Many
discussions with the members of the Cornell Andes
Group during GW’s sabbatical visit, in particular Rick
Allmendinger, Brian Isacks, Terry Jordan and Sue Kay,
were very helpful in developing our thoughts and to
improve this manuscript.
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