SPECIAL ISSUE
Granitic dimensional stones in Uruguay: evaluation
and assessment of potential resources
Manuela Morales Demarco • Pedro Oyhantc¸abal •
Karl-Jochen Stein • Siegfried Siegesmund
Received: 23 April 2012 / Accepted: 12 September 2012 / Published online: 10 November 2012
 The Author(s) 2012. This article is published with open access at Springerlink.com
Abstract In Uruguay commercial granite varieties com-
prise mafic rocks, granitoids, and syenitoids. There is a
long tradition in Uruguay, as well as worldwide, of using
dimensional stones in architecture and art, specially gra-
nitic ones. Some of the present applications of these
dimensional stones are as fac¸ade cladding, countertops, and
outdoor and indoor floor slabs. The color spectrum of the
Uruguayan granitic dimensional stones varies from black
to light gray, covering a wide variety of red and pink and
minor greenish-gray. The de´cor of these granitic dimen-
sional stones is mainly determined by their fabric, funda-
mentally the grain size and the color distribution between
the different minerals that compose the rocks. In the
present research the most important commercial granites
were sampled to analyze their petrography and petro-
physical properties. A detailed structural analysis has been
performed in several deposits, as well as the application of
the software 3D Block Expert for modeling the possible
raw block size distribution. Other factors controlling the
mining viability of the deposits were also studied (e.g.,
homogeneity/heterogeneity of color and de´cor) and the
possible reserves were calculated.
Keywords Granitic dimensional stones  Petrophysical
properties  Petrography  Deposit characterization 
Uruguay
Introduction
Terms and standards
Granitic dimensional stones are widely used in architec-
ture. Some examples include paving tiles, monuments,
interior and exterior wall cladding (Montani 2008)
(Figs. 1, 2). Its share of the market of dimensional stones
has doubled in the period between 1995 and 2007
(Montani 2008). Due to their durability, granite represents
one of the preferred natural materials when deterioration
risk is present.
Commercially, the term granite is used for dimensional
stones consisting of all the hard rocks, even when their
lithology strongly differs from that of true granite. In the
Earth Sciences, the use is stricter and the name granite only
applies to a plutonic rock containing quartz, alkali feldspar,
and plagioclase. These rocks plot in a specific field defined
by the QAPF classification triangle (Streckeisen 1976).
Granitoid is a superordinate category designating a
plutonic rock that has between 20 and 60 percent quartz in
the QAPF classification (Streckeisen 1976; Le Maitre et al.
2002; Allaby and Allaby 1990; Jackson 1997). It includes
the alkali feldspar granites, granites sensu stricto, granod-
iorites, and tonalites. Syenitoid is a term used for plutonic
rocks with a quartz content ranging between 0 and 20 %
and a feldspar ratio (alkali feldspar/plagioclase ? alkali
feldspar) between 35 and 100 % (Streckeisen 1976; Le
Maitre et al. 2002; Allaby and Allaby 1990; Jackson 1997).
Gabbroids include all the plutonic rocks showing a feldspar
M. Morales Demarco (&)  S. Siegesmund
Geoscience Center of the Georg-August University Go¨ttingen,
Goldschmidtstrasse 7, 37077 Go¨ttingen, Germany
e-mail: manugea@gmail.com
P. Oyhantc¸abal
Departamento de Geologı´a, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad
de la Repu´blica, Igua´ 4225, C.P. 11400 Montevideo, Uruguay
K.-J. Stein
Natursteininformationsbu¨ro, Am Schulzensee 3, OT Waldsee,
17258 Feldberger Seenlandschaft, Germany
123
Environ Earth Sci (2013) 69:1397–1438
DOI 10.1007/s12665-012-2027-y
ratio between 0 and 35 % and quartz contents between 0
and 20 % (Streckeisen 1976; Le Maitre et al. 2002; Allaby
and Allaby 1990; Jackson 1997). Mafic rock is a term that
includes gabbroids but also other igneous rocks (e.g.,
basalt) composed chiefly by mafic minerals (Jackson
1997).
Fig. 1 Uses of Uruguayan commercial granites in the city of
Montevideo; a outdoor fac¸ade cladding using Moderate Black
Dolerite and flooring slabs using Cufre´ Granite in the Antel Tower;
b outdoor sculpture (Vizconde de Maua´) using La Paz Granite;
c outdoor fac¸ade cladding using polished and unpolished slabs of
Violeta Imperial Syenite; d outdoor sculpture using Moskart Granite;
e different sorts of outdoor flooring slabs using granite; and f outdoor
socle and columns using Isla Mala Tonalite in the Central Train
Station (Estacio´n Central AFE)
Fig. 2 Global main uses of dimensional stones (in percentage) after Montani (2008) a global uses in 1995 (total finished production: 25 million
tons); and b global uses in 2007 (61 million tons)
1398 Environ Earth Sci (2013) 69:1397–1438
123
At the beginning of the 21st century, the European
countries decided that dimensional rocks must be correctly
named according to the petrological description and the
standards of international geological terminology (e.g.,
DIN EN 12407, 2007; DIN EN 12670, 2000; DIN EN
12670, 2001). Outside Europe the American standards are
normally used (e.g., ASTM C119 2011). These standards
allow the naming of granite as granular igneous rocks,
which includes granitoids, syenitoids, and mafic rocks
(gabbros, dolerites), but also some granular metamorphic
rocks such as gneisses and schists (Quick 2002).
In Uruguay, what is commercially known as ‘‘granite’’
includes a wide variety of lithologies such as granitoids
(granodiorite, tonalite, granite s.s.), syenitoids (quartz
syenite, alkali feldspar syenite and quartz alkali feldspar
syenite), and mafic rocks (gabbro-norite and dolerite)
(Table 1). The colored commercial granites include sye-
nitoids and granites s.s., whereas the gray granites com-
prise granites s.s., granodiorites and tonalites. The rocks
that are commercially known as black granites are basically
dolerites and gabbro-norites.
Production
The mining of dimensional stones in Uruguay began during
the first settlements with the construction of fortifications
and citadels between the end of the 17th and the beginning
of the 18th centuries. Examples are the fortress of Santa
Teresa, built from the porphyritic facies of the Santa Teresa
Granite and the citadels of Colonia del Sacramento and
Montevideo constructed from local granitic and metamor-
phic rocks. Since the beginning of the 20th century until
today, commercial granites have been used for a wide
variety of architectural and artistic purposes.
The dimensional stone sector had a very important
productive phase at the beginning of the 20th century.
Syenitoids of the Pan de Azu´car-Piria´polis area and gran-
ites of La Paz provided material for the construction of the
most important cities of the region, especially for Monte-
video and the neighboring city of Buenos Aires.
The international trend of using commercial granites
mainly for decorative purposes and not only for structural
ones is a practice used by the architects and construction
companies in Uruguay. Commercial granite is used in
Uruguay for fac¸ade cladding, as paving tiles, for interior
floor and wall cladding, countertops, stairs, columns,
sculptures, monuments, and precision tables, among other
applications (Fig. 1).
The dimensional stone market is particularly sensitive to
fashion trends and economic constrains. Beginning in the
year 2000 the economic crisis in South America led to a
severe decline in the construction industry, and thus, in the
dimensional stone production.
The world production of all types of dimensional stone
in 2007 was 103 million tons (Montani 2008). The leading
productive countries in that year were China, India, Tur-
key, Italy, and Spain, which together produced almost
60 % of the dimensional stone (Montani 2008). In 2007
Latin America produced 6.5 million tons, with Brazil being
the main producing country with 5.75 million tons, fol-
lowed by Argentina with 0.35 million (Montani 2008).
Uruguayan production in the same year was of 7,048 tons
(DI.NA.MI.GE. 2008), just 0.11 % of the total Latin
American production.
The most important countries in the granitic dimensional
stone sector are China, India, Spain, and Portugal as
illustrated in Fig. 3, where the dimensional and granitic
stone production in million tons is shown. The importance
of granitic rocks in this production is visible in Fig. 4,
where the total dimensional stone production is divided
into three main stone varieties: commercial granites, mar-
ble and travertine, and slate and others. Worldwide pro-
duction of commercial granites has almost quadruplicated
in 82 years (Montani 2008).
The production of dimensional stone in Uruguay today
is mainly represented by granite, slates, and sandstone with
a marginal proportion of marble (Fig. 5). The most
important variety in the commercial production of granite
is the black granite (dolerite), mainly the Moderate Black
variety. In order to gain a better idea of the importance of
each commercial variety, the production (in m3) was cal-
culated using the original data in tons from DI.NA.MI.GE.
(2008) for the year 2007 and the density values obtained in
this research. Dolerites showed a production of 1,810 m3,
representing 81 % of the commercial granite production,
gray granites represent 10 %, greenish-gray granite 5 %
(Soca or Moskart), and pink granite 4 % (La Paz or Car-
amel Pink).
The economic geological evaluation of dimensional
stone deposits essentially relies on two factors (e.g.,
Peschel 1977; Singewald 1992): (i) the presumable
occurrence of raw blocks (referring to the proportion of
raw blocks suitable for industrial processing) and (ii) the
petrophysical properties (tested according to EN norms),
which provide information about the rock behavior under
the influence of deterioration forces.
The production of raw blocks of adequate de´cor and size
is a major factor in the economic evaluation of a deposit.
An optimal block size is required for economical pro-
cessing using modern cutting techniques (e.g., a minimum
block size of 2.5 9 1.3 9 1 m is necessary when using the
gang saw blade). This optimal size must also take into
account the associated processing losses (e.g., oddments).
This is essentially controlled by the structural elements
(e.g., the spatial distribution of joint systems and their
frequency) and the homogeneity of the rock deposit.
Environ Earth Sci (2013) 69:1397–1438 1399
123
Currently, no models exist for sustainable mining of these
types of deposits, which reduces the waste material gen-
erated when producing an optimal block size.
Scope of the article and state of art
Uruguay has a wide variety of dimensional stones in terms
of color and de´cor; however, petrophysical properties and
deposits has not been sufficiently studied. The present
study aims to contribute to the economic geological
development of the granitic dimensional stones of Uruguay
with respect to further exploration, evaluation, mining, and
marketing.
Another important goal of the present study is to eval-
uate the petrophysical properties of the different granitic
dimensional stones of Uruguay to determine the best
potential uses of these rocks. Furthermore, the deposits are
characterized according to color and de´cor, so that the
distribution of commercially interesting stones can be
determined as well as the factors controlling the deposits.
These factors are the volume of the deposit, the lithological
aspects, and the structural elements present. In order to
provide a steady product for the market the volume of
material available is important. However, the waste mate-
rial is also of secondary economic value in the operation of
dimensional stone deposit. Structural elements control the
Table 1 List of commercial granites from Uruguay (Data source Bossi and Navarro 2000; DI.NA.MI.GE. 2011; Comunita` Economica Europea,
no date; author’s database)
Rock Id Commercial type Commercial name Locality Department
Dolerite U8 Black granite Sacramento (Comercio Exterior S.A.) A Pichinango Colonia
Dolerite U11A Black granite Absolute (Black Stone S.A.) A de la Quinta San Jose´
Dolerite U11O Black granite Moderate or Oriental (Black Stone S.A.) A de la Quinta San Jose´
Dolerite U66 Black granite Oriental (Pimafox) A Polonia Colonia
Gabbro-norite U87 Black Granite Mahoma Black Mal Abrigo San Jose´
Basalt U49 Black granite Arapey Black Arroyo Valentı´n Chico Salto
Granite U2 Gray granite Maldonado Gray Maldonado Maldonado
Granodiorite U4 Gray granite Chamanga´ Gray Arroyo Chamanga´ Flores
Granite U53 Gray granite Cuchilla del Perdido Gray Blue Chuchilla del Perdido Soriano
Granite U70 Gray granite Cerro A´spero or Gray Rocha Arroyo Sauce de Rocha Rocha
Granite U73 Gray granite Cufre´ Gray Blue Cufre´ Colonia
Granite U80 Gray granite Cerro de Carmelo Gray El Cerro. Carmelo Colonia
Granite U81 Gray granite Ismael Cortinas Gray Ismael Cortinas Flores
Granite U82 Gray granite Loyner Gray Flores
Granite U83 Gray granite Gon˜i Gray Gon˜i Florida
Granite U85 Gray granite Iguazu´ or Garzo´n Gray Garzo´n Rocha
Granite U89 Gray granite Losten Gray Soriano
Granite U90 Gray granite Dionisio Gray Cuchilla de Dionisio Treinta y Tres
Granite U93 Gray granite Santa Teresa Gray Santa Teresa Rocha
Tonalite U94 Gray granite Isla Mala Gray 25 de Agosto Florida
Granite U95 Gray granite Northern Garzo´n Gray Garzo´n Maldonado
Granite U7 Dark green granite Labradorita Oriental or Moskart Soca Canelones
Granite U74 Red granite Caramel Pink or La Paz La Paz Canelones
Granite U75 Red granite Asperezas A Asperezas–A Malo Cerro Largo
Granite U76 Red granite Guazunambı´, Montevideo or Iguazu´ Arbolito Cerro Largo
Granite U77 Red granite Luja´n or Santa Clara Santa Clara del Olimar Cerro Largo
Granite U84 Red granite Sarah Pink Lavalleja
Granite U88 Red granite Mahoma Red Mal Abrigo San Jose´
Quartz alkali feldspar
syenite
U15 Red granite Salmon Red or Guazubira´ Sierra de A´nimas Maldonado
Alkali feldspar syenite U46 Red granite Artigas Pearl or Artiqas Piria´polis Maldonado
Quartz–syenite U47 Red granite Violeta Imperial Sierra de A´nimas Maldonado
Quartz alkali feldspar
syenite
U92 Gray granite Pan de Azu´car White Piria´polis Maldonado
1400 Environ Earth Sci (2013) 69:1397–1438
123
deposit by the joint system present, whereby their distri-
bution determines the shape and volume of the blocks
being mined. Lithological aspects define the suitability of a
granitic rock for use as a dimensional stone, since it con-
trols the color and de´cor. The mineral composition and
fabric are important for the characterization of a dimen-
sional stone with respect to the petrophysical properties of
the rock, as well as its resistance to weathering.
Similar investigations on granitic dimensional stones in
Thailand were carried out by Hoffmann (2006), Hoffmann
and Siegesmund (2007), in Argentina by Mosch et al.
(2007) and in Uruguay by Morales Pe´rez and Muzio (2005)
and Oyhantc¸abal et al. (2007). Some examples of detailed
research in exotic granitic rocks include an investigation on
the larvikites of Norway (Heldal et al. 2008), on dolerites
from Uruguay (Bossi and Campal 1991; Morales Demarco
et al. 2011), and on a granitic batholith in Sa˜o Paulo, Brazil
(Artur et al. 2001).
Geological setting
Uruguayan geology is characterized by an igneous-meta-
morphic basement and several basins distributed in differ-
ent regions of the country (Fig. 6). The crystalline basement
was originally divided into two domains by Ferrando and
Ferna´ndez (1971), the western domains belonging to the
Transamazonian Cycle (Paleoproteozoic) and the eastern
one to the Brasiliano Cycle (Neoproterozoic).
Today the western domain is known as Rio de la Plata
Craton (Almeida et al. 1973; Bossi and Ferrando 2001;
Oyhantc¸abal et al. 2010), which extends westwards into
Argentina. The eastern domain is divided into the Nico
Pe´rez and Punta del Este Terranes (Bossi and Ferrando
2001; Oyhantc¸abal et al. 2010). A mobile belt known as the
Dom Feliciano Belt is located between these two terranes
(Fragoso Ce´sar 1980; Oyhantc¸abal et al. 2009, 2010). The
boundaries between these tectono-stratigraphic units are
from west to east: the Sarandı´ del Yı´ Shear Zone (SYSZ)
and Sierra Ballena Shear Zone (SBSZ).
Since the Neoproterozoic the Uruguayan continental
area was quite stable, but was interrupted in the Lower
Cretaceous by the opening of the South Atlantic Ocean. In
this major event, rift basins with associated bimodal
magmatism opened and flood basalts were deposited over a
wide area of South America, known as the Parana´ Basin,
which also includes northwestern Uruguay.
Regionalization of commercial granite deposits
The commercial granite deposits found in Uruguay occur
in three tectono-stratigraphic units: the Dom Feliciano Belt
(DFB), the Rı´o de la Plata Craton (RPC), and the Punta del
Este Terrane (PET) (Fig. 6). The main tectonic events did
not negatively affect the petrophysical properties and the
possibility of mining these intrusive rocks. Exceptions can
be found locally in some deposits, where a brittle regime
Fig. 3 Examples of dimensional stone production in million tons for
the year 2001 (Sources Spain: Federacio´n Espan˜ola de la Piedra Natural
2008; India: Centre for Development of Stones—Jaipur 2011; Portugal:
Direcc¸a˜o Geral de Energia e Geologia (DGEG) and Divisa˜o de
Estatı´stica 2011; China: Jorge Quiroz C Consultores Asociados 2006)
Fig. 4 World dimensional stone production classified by rock type (in percentage) after Montani (2008) a production in 1926 (total production is
1.79 million tons); and b production in 2007 (total production is 103.5 million tons)
Environ Earth Sci (2013) 69:1397–1438 1401
123
developed cataclastic zones where no mining can take
place.
Most of the dimensional stone deposits in Uruguay are
located in the DFB and many of them are granitic rocks.
Syenitoid deposits, for example, are located in the Sierra de
A´nimas Complex (Coronel et al. 1987; Bossi and Navarro
2001; Morales Pe´rez 2004; Oyhantc¸abal et al. 2007). The
commercial varieties are characterized by their light red,
pink, violet, and gray colors. The commercial varieties
Artigas Pearl (Fig. 7e) and Pan de Azu´car White are
located in the southernmost portion of this complex (See
Fig. 6), whereas the Salmon Red (Fig. 7g) and the Violeta
Imperial (Fig. 7h) are in the central part.
In the central part of the DFB (Preciozzi et al. 1985;
Bossi and Navarro 2000; Bossi and Ferrando 2001; Mor-
ales Pe´rez 2004) deposits of red granites are located, e.g.,
the Luja´n or Santa Clara Granite. Further to the north in the
DFB a red granite deposit is located: the Guazunambı´
Granite (See Fig. 6) (Preciozzi et al. 1985; Bossi and
Navarro 2000; Bossi and Ferrando 2001; Morales Pe´rez
2004). The rock shows a gentle foliation since this region
experienced a progressive deformation toward the Sierra
Ballena Shear Zone (SBSZ). The deformed gray granite
deposits are associated with the SBSZ. Maldonado Gray is
one of these granites, which shows the most developed
features of synmagmatic deformation of all the commercial
granites analyzed, having a very well-developed foliation
and mineral lineation.
In the RPC, a dolerite dike swarm crops out in an area of
20,000 km2 (Bossi and Campal 1991; Morales Demarco
et al. 2011). The mined dolerite is commercialized as high
quality black granite consisting of two varieties, based on
the intensity of their black color: Absolute Black and
Moderate Black (Fig. 7a, b; Coronel et al. 1987; Bossi and
Campal 1991; Morales Demarco et al. 2011). Absolute
Black is mined from dikes that have a fine-grained zone
wide enough to produce marketable blocks. Two other
mafic rocks with increasing importance are also located in
the Piedra Alta Terrane (PAT): belonging to the Guaycuru´
Complex (Bossi and Schipilov 2007) is the gabbro-norite
known as Mahoma Black and belonging to the Arapey
Group is the Arapey Basalt. The Arapey Group is com-
posed of six different lithostratigraphic units (formations),
each one interbedded with several lava flows that show
variations in the geochemical and mineralogical composi-
tion (Bossi and Schipilov 2007).
Since the Paleoproterozoic the Rı´o de la Plata craton
remained relatively tectonically stable, with no indication
of deformational events or moderate ones. Evidence of
high-grade metamorphic overprinting in the intrusions is
absent. The lack of these structural elements in this craton
makes the extraction of commercial granites possible.
Gray granites, tonalites, and granodiorites are very
common in this craton. Some examples of commercial gray
granitoids are the Chamanga´ Gray, Gon˜i Gray, and the
Cuchilla del Perdido Gray Blue granites (Fig. 7c). In the
locality of Cufre´ is found a granite with a moderate folia-
tion determined not only by the biotite (Preciozzi et al.
1985), but also by the alignment of the mafic enclaves: the
Cufre´ Gray Blue (Fig. 7f). In the city of La Paz is located
the La Paz Granite (Preciozzi et al. 1985; Oyhantc¸abal
et al. 1990a) (Fig. 7i), whose porphyritic facies is known as
the Caramel Pink Granite and together with the Mahoma
Red and Moskart Granites (Fig. 7d), they illustrate exam-
ples of colored granites s.s. in this unit.
In the PET only gray granite deposits have been mined.
Some of them are fine-grained like the Cerro A´spero and
Garzo´n granites (Preciozzi et al. 1985). Moreover, very
coarse-grained granites showing oriented alkali feldspar
phenocrysts occur (Preciozzi et al. 1985; Muzio and Artur
1999), and these are known as the Santa Teresa Gray Granite.
Lithological inventory
Previous authors have studied the granitic rocks of Uru-
guay that are used as dimensional stones by paying special
attention to the dolerites, syenitoids, greenish-gray gran-
ites, and some of the red and gray granites (Scheer 1964;
Caruso 1987; Bossi and Navarro 2000; Morales Pe´rez
2004; Spoturno et al. 2004a, b, c; Techera et al. 2004a, b,
c). The different commercial granites of Uruguay are
classified according to their mineralogical and geochemical
composition into mafic rocks, granitoids, and syenitoids. In
Fig. 8 the modal composition of the commercial granites is
plotted using the QAP diagram proposed by Streckeisen
(1976). In Fig. 9a the geochemical analyses are plotted in
the R1–R2 diagram (De La Roche et al. 1980) and in
Fig. 9b in the TAS diagram (Middlemost 1997; Best 2003).
Fig. 5 Production of dimensional stone in Uruguay in 2007 (in
percentage) (total production is 5,322 m3) (Data source DI.NA.-
MI.GE. 2007)
1402 Environ Earth Sci (2013) 69:1397–1438
123
Fig. 6 Geological map of Uruguay with deposit localities (redrawn after Oyhantc¸abal et al. 2010; Sa´nchez Bettucci et al. 2010)
Environ Earth Sci (2013) 69:1397–1438 1403
123
Tables 2 and 3 shows the geochemical analyses for the
commercial granite varieties.
Mafic group
The rocks belonging to the mafic group are characterized by
their black color resulting from their mineralogical com-
position and grain size. The Uruguayan mafic rocks have
SiO2 values between 48.6 (Mahoma Gabbro, Bossi and
Schipilov 2007) and 55.43 wt% (Absolute Black Dolerite),
FeOt values between 8.82 and 14.50 wt%, MgO between
3.04 and 7.13, and CaO between 6.97 to 9.74 wt%. These
rocks belong to the basic to intermediate field (Table 2).
The mafic rocks in this category all have a tholeitic affinity
and their intrusion occurred in an extensional regime (Bossi
and Campal 1991; Bossi and Schipilov 2007).
The dolerites have been extensively studied by Bossi
and Campal (1991) and Morales Demarco et al. (2011).
Bossi and Campal (1991) determined two geochemical and
petrographic groups. The rocks of Group A are composed
of plagioclase and lower amounts of augite, granophyric
intergrowth, amphibole, and opaques; and are character-
ized by high TiO2 contents and an andesitic composition
(Bossi and Campal 1991; Morales Demarco et al. 2011).
Group B has a low TiO2 content and an andesitic-basalt
composition. In both groups the opaques are magnetite,
ilmenite, and hematite, although they differ in the total
amount (Table 4).
Fig. 7 Polished slabs of Uruguayan commercial granites (slab
length = 10 cm) a Absolute Black Dolerite; b Moderate Black
Dolerite; c Cuchilla del Pe´rdido Gray Granite; d Moskart Granite;
e Artigas Pearl Syenite; f Cufre´ Gray Granite; g Salmon Red Syenite;
h Violeta Imperial Syenite; and i Caramel Pink Granite
1404 Environ Earth Sci (2013) 69:1397–1438
123
Mahoma Black is classified as a gabbro-norite according
to geochemical and petrographical analyses (Oyhantc¸abal
et al. 1990b; Bossi and Schipilov 2007). The mineralogy is
composed of plagioclase, orthopyroxene, clinopyroxene,
olivine, and spinel, and as accessories pyrrhotite, pent-
landite, chalcopyrite, pyrite, marcasite, valleriite, violarite,
magnetite, ilmenite, and magnetite (Oyhantc¸abal et al.
1990b; Bossi and Schipilov 2007).
Arapey Basalt belongs to the Arapey Group, which is
composed of several lava flows that show variations in the
geochemical and mineralogical composition. In general, the
rocks are medium-grained and composed of plagioclase and
pyroxene with a subophitic texture (Fig. 10c). Some of the
lava flows also contain olivine, granophyric intergrowths, and
opaques (Bossi and Schipilov 2007). The analyzed rock
belongs to the Itapebı´ formation (Bossi and Schipilov 2007).
Its mineralogy comprises plagioclase, augite, opaques (mag-
netite and hematite), limonite, and a minor amount of quartz.
The augite is partially transformed to limonite; however,
finely disseminated limonite is also homogeneously distrib-
uted throughout the rock (Table 4). This leads to the
assumption that the rock is already partially weathered.
Granitoids
This group of rocks can be classified by their color in gray,
red, and greenish-gray and by their grain size in fine-,
medium, coarse-, and very coarse-grained. They have SiO2
values that range from 66.67 to 75.34 wt%, classifying
them in the field of acid rocks. FeOt varies from 1.31 to
3.49 wt%, MgO from 0.11 to 1.21, and CaO from 0.93 to
4.35 wt%. The total alkalis range from 5.63 to 9.4 wt%,
thus these rocks can be classified as transalkaline to calc-
alkaline or tholeitic (Table 2; Fig. 9).
The mineralogy of the granitoids is represented by
alkali feldspar (microcline and orthoclase), sometimes
containing perthites (Moskart Granite), plagioclase, quartz,
biotite, muscovite, and hornblende (Table 4; Fig. 10).
Accessories are magnetite, pyrite, hematite, epidote, apa-
tite, titanite, garnet, stilpnomelane, chlorite, and calcite.
Isla Mala is the only granitoid that contains ilmenite.
Pyrite is always found as traces. Chamanga´ Granite is
classified as a granodiorite and Isla Mala as a tonalite; the
other granitoids that compose this group are classified as
granites s.s. (Fig. 8).
Some of these granites show signs of deformation. Cufre´
Granite shows a complete recrystallization of quartz, evi-
denced by the very fine-grained texture of this mineral and
the absence of undulose extinction (Fig. 10f). The alkali
feldspar (microcline) shows incipient recrystallization at
the borders of the crystals, but also in thin cracks filled by
very fine-grained feldspar crystals along larger crystals. A
gentle foliation is observable in the quarry and in extracted
blocks, which is determined by the lineation of biotite
Fig. 8 QAP diagram of
Uruguayan commercial granites
(modified after Streckeisen
1976)
Environ Earth Sci (2013) 69:1397–1438 1405
123
crystals and mafic microenclaves. The Maldonado Granite
has undergone a more intense synmagmatic deformation
related to the activity of the SBSZ as described by
Oyhantc¸abal (2005). This granite has a very well-devel-
oped foliation, with alternating bands some more rich in
biotite and others rich in feldspar and quartz (Fig. 10h).
Fig. 9 a Distribution of
commercial granites in Uruguay
a R1–R2 diagram (after De La
Roche et al. 1980), and b TAS
diagram (modified after
Middlemost 1997; Best 2003).
Data of La Paz Granite after
Oyhantc¸abal et al. (1990a, b,
2010); Isla Mala Complex after
Preciozzi (1993); Soca Granite
after Oyhantc¸abal et al. (1998);
Santa Teresa Granite after
Muzio and Artur (1999); Pan de
Azu´car Pluton and Maldonado
Granite after Oyhantc¸abal et al.
(2007); Mahoma Gabbro-norite
and Arapey Basalt after Bossi
and Schipilov (2007); Dolerites
after Morales Demarco et al.
(2011); Cufre´ and Mahoma
Granite after Oyhantc¸abal et al.
(2010); Basalt, granitoids, and
syenites this study
1406 Environ Earth Sci (2013) 69:1397–1438
123
Table 3 Trace element composition of the commercial granites (in ppm)
Sample Ba Cr Ga Nb Ni Rb Sr V Y Zn Zr
U11A 485 54 20 11 31 52 207 381 37 115 212
U11O 453 25 21 10 25 47 211 404 34 132 195
U66 275 175 16 6 115 16 187 201 16 72 106
U49 384 45 22 23 39 15 439 481 35 143 238
U2 225 22 19 14 12 300 50 14 60 41 168
U4 680 27 22 8 11 42 620 29 12 56 224
U53 854 32 21 9 11 37 703 36 14 66 189
U70 569 25 17 9 12 164 152 29 22 23 143
U71 590 21 19 6 14 184 137 31 23 36 160
U73 1,160 24 17 13 16 88 160 18 19 49 196
U83 1,119 16 18 12 14 57 645 9 9 47 161
U93 293 13 23 21 12 336 72 12 34 48 164
U94 536 24 20 11 23 34 487 42 13 53 128
U95 608 18 17 18 19 170 183 20 26 30 114
U7 1,853 20 22 39 12 106 161 \9 91 137 672
U74 449 15 23 18 10 212 129 9 33 40 187
U76 2,238 18 22 12 19 151 1,002 20 10 35 190
U88 1,426 29 25 11 21 176 588 26 9 9 191
U15 725 23 23 42 10 152 174 13 39 62 407
U46 2,288 14 23 48 9 53 523 9 39 112 878
U47 164 19 24 42 9 80 33 \9 34 74 557
U92 50 9 36 71 20 122 15 9 69 144 1,068
Table 2 Major element composition of the commercial granites (in wt%)
Sample SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 FeOt MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O P2O5 Fe2O3 H2O CO2 Mg #
U11A 55.43 1.73 12.94 12.54 0.17 3.04 6.97 2.58 1.75 0.22 13.93 0.63 0.13 0.20
U11O 53.22 2.33 12.16 14.50 0.18 3.07 7.25 2.56 1.64 0.25 16.11 0.59 0.09 0.17
U66 53.19 0.74 14.98 8.82 0.15 7.13 9.74 1.87 0.91 0.10 9.80 0.82 0.29 0.45
U49 49.27 3.51 12.38 13.96 0.21 4.72 8.67 2.44 1.33 0.46 15.51 1.14 0.08 0.25
U2 75.34 0.24 12.48 1.58 0.04 0.27 0.93 2.77 5.22 0.07 1.76 0.56 0.11 0.15
U4 67.75 0.46 16.45 2.66 0.05 0.99 3.45 4.74 1.83 0.14 2.95 0.78 0.17 0.27
U53 66.67 0.52 16.34 3.11 0.06 1.21 3.73 4.60 1.84 0.17 3.46 0.92 0.17 0.28
U70 70.71 0.34 14.23 1.97 0.05 0.73 2.22 2.69 4.53 0.10 2.19 1.24 0.79 0.27
U71 71.59 0.34 13.94 2.02 0.05 0.60 1.87 2.65 4.76 0.13 2.24 1.18 0.49 0.23
U73 72.8 0.25 13.70 2.21 0.03 0.38 1.66 3.58 3.87 0.07 2.45 0.73 0.19 0.15
U83 71.9 0.23 15.00 1.85 0.03 0.41 2.51 4.48 1.98 0.07 2.06 0.66 0.34 0.18
U93 73.00 0.28 13.70 2.03 0.06 0.36 1.16 2.94 4.84 0.18 2.26 0.79 0.20 0.15
U94 67.8 0.42 16.00 2.97 0.05 1.15 4.35 4.41 1.22 0.12 3.30 0.70 0.18 0.28
U95 71.9 0.26 14.50 1.69 0.04 0.53 2.24 2.91 4.29 0.08 1.88 0.87 0.31 0.24
U7 72.3 0.36 12.22 3.49 0.05 0.11 1.59 2.34 5.54 0.07 3.88 0.67 0.37 0.03
U74 73.7 0.23 13.30 1.80 0.03 0.17 1.33 3.48 4.72 0.05 2.00 0.45 0.23 0.09
U76 71.3 0.27 14.40 1.31 0.02 0.47 1.15 3.71 5.69 0.10 1.45 0.47 0.34 0.26
U88 70.2 0.36 14.10 1.85 0.01 0.64 1.56 3.86 4.87 0.14 2.05 0.68 1.15 0.26
U15 69.2 0.26 15.49 2.09 0.06 0.21 1.09 4.55 5.65 0.06 2.32 0.64 0.11 0.09
U46 61.48 0.61 17.72 4.17 0.14 0.48 2.36 5.82 5.17 0.14 4.63 0.59 0.20 0.10
U47 65.06 0.33 16.41 4.19 0.16 0.04 1.44 5.34 6.76 0.03 4.66 0.71 0.13 0.01
U92 66.6 0.29 15.10 3.94 0.13 0.01 0.62 6.11 5.44 0.02 4.38 0.47 0.24 0.00
Environ Earth Sci (2013) 69:1397–1438 1407
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The Guazunambı´ Granite shows deformation features
suggesting that it also intruded during the activity of the
SBSZ (Bossi and Navarro 2001). In this granite the feld-
spars are all aligned and define a gentle foliation.
Syenitoids
This group is characterized by coarse- to very coarse-
grained size, normally showing an inequigranular texture
and different shades of red and pink color. The geochem-
istry of the four syenitoid deposits studied is very similar,
with values of SiO2 ranging from 61.5 to 69.2 wt% (i.e.,
intermediate to acid rocks; Table 2). The values of Al2O3,
TiO2, MgO, CaO, and P2O5 are always higher in the Art-
igas Pearl. In the Pan de Azu´car White, the Na2O content is
higher than in any other syenitoid or rock from the other
groups considered.
The syenitoids are characterized by low amounts of quartz
and plagioclase and high alkali feldspar contents (Table 5).
The syenitoids are composed mainly of orthoclase, micro-
cline, and amphiboles, the latter are normally hornblende, but
in the Pan de Azu´car White, sodic amphibole (probably rie-
beckite or arfvedsonite) is the main amphibole found. Other
minerals that occur in these rocks appear as accessories:
plagioclase, quartz, biotite, chlorite, pyroxene (normally
aegirine–augite), ferristilpnomelane, calcite, epidote, tour-
maline, magnetite, and zircon. Artigas Pearl shows traces of
pyrite. Based on their mineralogical composition, these rocks
can be classified as alkali feldspar syenite, quartz alkali
feldspar syenite, and quartz syenites (Fig. 8).
Technical aspects
Color and de´cor
The black and dark gray color characterizes the mafic rocks
mined in Uruguay. Other mafic rocks with different colors
Fig. 10 Thin section images of black and gray commercial granites,
image width approximately 8.7 mm. a Fine-grained Absolute Black
Dolerite (U11A) in plane polarized light (PPL) with a subophitic
texture between Pl and Aug; b Moderate Black Dolerite (U11O) of
Group A (high TiO2) in PPL, medium grain size and subophitic
texture; c Arapey Basalt (U49) in PPL with medium-grained
subophitic texture; d Cerro A´spero Granite (U70) in cross polarized
light (CPL), fine- to medium-grained texture with Or and Qtz;
e Chamanga´ Granite (U4) in CPL medium-grained texture with Qtz,
Pl, Or, and Bt; f Cufre´ Granite (U73) in CPL, to the right
recrystallized Qtz (fine-grained) and to the left a Mc phenocryst;
g Cuchilla del Perdido Granite in CPL, medium-grained texture, Qtz,
Pl, Or, and Bt; and h Maldonado Granite in CPL, phenocrysts of Or
and Mc in recrystallized matrix of Qtz with Bt. Abbreviations after
Kretz (1983) except the ones marked with asterisk: Aug augite, Bt
biotite, Lm limonite, Mc microcline, Or orthoclase, Pl plagioclase,
Qtz quartz
Table 4 Modal composition of
the commercial granites studied
Abbreviations after Kretz
(1983) except the ones marked
with asterisk: Ab albite, Amph*
amphibole, Aug augite, Bt
biotite, Cal calcite, Chl chlorite,
Festil* ferristilpnomelane, Gr.
Int.* graphic intergrowth, Hbl
hornblende, Lm limonite, Mc
microcline, Ms muscovite, Op*
opaques, Or orthoclase, Pl
plagioclase, Qtz quartz
ID Commercial name Modal analysis (vol%)
U11A Negro Absoluto Dolerite 37Pl, 33Aug, 20Gr.int., 9Op
U11O Negro Oriental Dolerite 41Pl, 29Aug, 3Hbl, 22Gr.int., 5Op
U66A Pimafox fine-grained 58Pl, 42Aug, Op
U660 Pimafox coarse-grained 47Pl, 42Aug, 6Gr.int., lOp
U49 Arapey 3Qtz, 40Pl, 31Aug, 17Lm, 9Op
U2 Maldonado 5lQtz, 34Mc, 10Pl, 5Bt
U4 Chamanga´ 31Qtz, 9Or, 7Mc, 38Pl, 15Bt
U53 Cuchilla del Perdido 33Qtz, 26Or, 29Pl, l0Bt, lAug, lHbl
U70 Cerro A´spero 30Qtz, 36Or, 6Mc, 8Pl, 12Bt; 7Ms, ICal
U73 Cufre´ 40Qtz, lOr, 29Mc, 24Pl, 6Bt
U83 Gon˜i 45Qtz, 28Or, 24Pl, 3Bt
U92 Pan de Azu´car 8Qtz, 80Or, 11Hbl
U93 Santa Teresa 18Qtz, 63Mc, 10Pl, 9Bt
U94 Isla Mala 42Qtz, lMc, 53Pl, 4Bt
U95 Garzo´n Granite 46Qtz, 32Or, 6Mc, 13Pl, 3Bt
U7 Moskart 41Qtz, 46Mc, 8Pl, lHbl, 2Festil, 2Op
U74 La Paz 25Qtz, 60Mc, 7Pl, 7Bt, lHbl
U76 Guazunambı´ 27Qtz, 15Or, 16Mc, 36Pl, 4Bt, lAug, ICal
U88 Mahoma Red 41Qtz, 7Ort, 63Mc, 30Pl, 6Bt
U15 Salmon Red 12Qtz; 71Or, 13Pl, 2Hbl, IChI, lFestil
U46 Artigas Pearl 86Or, 5Pl, 4Hbl, 5Festil
U47 Violeta Imperial 11Qtz, 67Or, 7Pl, 8Hbl, 1Lm, lAug, 2Op, 3Festil
c
1408 Environ Earth Sci (2013) 69:1397–1438
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Environ Earth Sci (2013) 69:1397–1438 1409
123
have never been mined. The black and gray colors are
determined by a relatively high proportion of mafic min-
erals (e.g., pyroxenes, amphiboles, opaque minerals). Bossi
and Campal (1991) classified the dolerites according to
their grain size and their black color quality. The most
valuable dolerite is the Absolute Black variety (Fig. 10a),
which is defined by its deep black color and a fine-grained
subophitic texture. Its color is very homogeneous not only
due its texture but also due to the lack of veins. It has only
been found in a small proportion of the deposits in Group A
(Morales Demarco et al. 2011). The dark gray variety,
which is characterized by a medium-grained subophitic
texture, is known as Moderate Black, Negro Oriental, or
Sacramento (Fig. 10b) and is found in groups A and B. Its
de´cor is sometimes interrupted by white spots due to the
presence of millimeter-sized granophyric intergrowths.
Light gray aplitic veins up to five centimeter in thickness
are sometimes observable, but these can be easily avoided
during the mining process.
Mahoma Black is a dark gray fine- to medium-grained
gabbro-norite (Oyhantc¸abal et al. 1990b). The presence of
sulfides in this rock (Oyhantc¸abal et al. 1990b; Bossi and
Schipilov 2007) limits its use as a dimensional stone to
indoor applications, where weathering processes do not
alter its color or change the petrophysical and petrome-
chanical properties.
The granitoids can be further classified according to two
specific fabric features: grain size (fine, medium-, and
coarse-grained) and the relationships between the mineral
components (equigranular, porphyritic, etc.). The gray
granitoids owe their color to the relatively high amount of
limpid and gray feldspar, quartz, low amounts of mafic
minerals, and the absence of iron hydroxides (e.g., limo-
nite). They can be sub-classified into: (i) fine-grained
(Cerro A´spero and Garzo´n), (ii) medium-grained (Cha-
manga´, Cuchilla del Perdido and Cufre´), and (iii) very
coarse-grained (Maldonado and Santa Teresa). Cufre´
Granite shows recrystallization of quartz grains and a
gentle foliation. The coarse-grained granites also have a
porphyritic texture with a preferred orientation of the
phenocrysts (Muzio and Artur 1999; Oyhantc¸abal 2005).
The Uruguayan red granites show a color range between
carmine red and carmine pink, with small variations within
a same variety. The red color in granitoids has been related
to the presence of ferric iron oxides in the alkali feldspars,
especially hematite (Boone 1969; Taylor 1977; Nakano
et al. 2002; Putnis et al. 2007; Plu¨mper and Putnis 2009).
Plu¨mper and Putnis (2009) studied the re-equilibration of
feldspars in the presence of a fluid phase in gray and red
stained granites from southeast Sweden. They determined a
three stage feldspar replacement within these rocks: (i) the
first stage consists of a replacement of original microcline
by oligoclase due to fluid circulation (in the late magmatic
stage) with a concomitant porosity development within the
oligoclase; (ii) a second stage is characterized by the cir-
culation of Na-enriched hydrothermal fluid leading to a
replacement of the oligoclase by albite and sericite for-
mation within the albite pores; and (iii) the third stage
includes fracturing and infiltration of a K-rich fluid that
causes the K-feldspathization of sericite and albite with
hematite precipitation in the orthoclase pores that produces
the red coloration.
Table 5 Block volume
calculated using different
methods
* Cufre´ Granite quarry data
may not be representative of the
whole deposit
Quarries ID Block size Vb (m3)
Singewald
method
Palmstrøm
method
Sousa
method
Sacramento Dolerite lower floor U8_lf 3.73 4.12 2.51
Sacramento Dolerite upper floor U8_uf 1.03 1.15 0.65
Maldonado Granite lower floor U2_lf 0.35 0.38 0.12
Maldonado Granite upper floor U2_uf 0.43 0.41 0.17
Chamanga´ Granite U4 13 12 8
Cerro A´spero Granite (quarry 193) U70_193 2.81 3.01 0.86
Cerro A´spero Granite (quarry 192) U70_192 6.16 6.84 3.27
Cufre´ Granite* U73 689 756 163
Moskart Granite U7 10.6 8.0 1.8
Salmon Red Syenite (quarry 075) U15_075 1.14 1.23 0.40
Salmon Red Syenite (quarry 079) U15_079 8.83 9.38 4.89
Artigas Syenite lower floor U46_lf 1.53 1.71 0.20
Artigas Syenite upper floor U46_uf 5.60 6.21 2.14
Artigas Syenite boulder zone U46_b 37.1 38.3 38.1
Violeta Imperial Syenite U47 2.64 2.78 0.47
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123
In all the Uruguayan red granites evidence of these
feldspar replacements can be observed. In the Mahoma Red
Granite, for example, the plagioclase contains sericite and
calcite inclusions, as well as microcline relicts. The pla-
gioclase is partially replaced by perthitic orthoclase and
both feldspars show a red stain, probably due to precipi-
tation of hematite (Fig. 11). The red granites are either
medium-grained, with equigranular texture (Mahoma Red
Granite, equigranular facies of the La Paz Granite) or
medium to coarse-grained, with porphyritic texture (por-
phyritic facies of the La Paz Granite, Preciozzi et al. 1985;
Oyhantc¸abal et al. 1990a) and eventually show a slightly
orientation of their phenocrysts (Guazunambı´ and Luja´n
Granites).
Moskart Granite is greenish-gray to brownish-gray and
very coarse-grained (Fig. 11c, d), with small variations of
color in the area of the deposit. Bossi et al. (1965) attributed
its color to the growth of biotite and chlorite in the cleavage
planes of microcline. On the other hand, Oyhantc¸abal et al.
(1998) suggested that a secondary paragenesis (stilpno-
melane, chlorite, calcite, and bluish green amphibole)
related to the activity of the SYSZ generates the color. The
rock actually shows evidence of similar feldspar replace-
ment as described for the red granites but without the pre-
cipiatation of hematite. It can also be observed in the gray
non-commercial variety and the greenish-gray variety
(commercialized as Moskart Granite) (Fig. 11c, d). The
main difference between these two color varieties is not the
proportion of the feldspar replacement. The greenish-gray
color of the commercial variety (Moskart Granite) is related
to the presence of microcracks filled by chlorite, sericite,
calcite, and limonite. The differences in the distribution and
proportions of these minerals determine the color variations
observed in the quarries and in the commercialized Moskart
Granite varieties.
All these granites can show structural elements that
disrupt their de´cor. The most frequent disruptions are due
to mafic enclaves, biotite accumulations, mafic and aplitic
dikes, schlieren, synmagmatic and convolute layering.
As already described and illustrated by previous authors
(Comunita` Economica Europea—Uruguay no date, Bossi
and Navarro 2000; Oyhantc¸abal et al. 2007) the colors of
the syenitoids are dark salmon, pink salmon, and terracotta
with white spots (Salmon Red), pale red–violet (Violeta
Imperial), and light gray with black spots (Pan de Azu´car
White). Artigas Pearl shows a distinct de´cor and color,
where bluish-gray feldspar crystals (up to 35 mm), some-
times showing iridescence, are surrounded by a pink to
intense crimson rim in their contact with the agglomera-
tions of mafic minerals (up to 1 cm). This kind of color
combination is relatively seldom in magmatic rocks. It
optically attenuates and softens the intense coarse-grained
texture, so that this rock will be preferably used for eye-
catching applications such as countertops and fac¸ades.
In these rocks the same feldspar replacements are
observable as in the red and greenish-gray granites
(Fig. 11e–h). Other evidences of hydrothermal alteration
are the presence of biotite partially altered to chlorite,
epidote, and calcite (e.g., in the Red Salmon Syenite).
Salmon Red, Violeta Imperial, and Pan de Azu´car White
are coarse-grained, whereas Artigas Pearl is very coarse-
grained and has a porphyritic texture (Fig. 11e, f). The
texture is seriated in Salmon Red (Fig. 11g, h), Violeta
Imperial, and Pan de Azu´car White syenitoids, with feld-
spar crystals between 4 to 15 mm in size. All the syenitoid
deposits show occurrences of narrow schlieren (up to
5 mm), thin mafic dikes, or aplitic veins, but only the
Salmon Red and Violeta Imperial contain mafic enclaves.
Due to the special de´cor of these rocks, small changes in
mineralogy and alteration (hydrothermal and weathering)
can lead to very visible changes in color and fabric. The
case of the Artigas Pearl is a good example, since its de´cor
varies from the more typical variety (Fig. 12a) to the very
intense red or darker gray varieties (Fig. 12b, c), which
modifies the market value of this rock.
Petrophysical and petromechanical properties
The potential uses of the dimensional stones can be
deduced from their physical and mechanical properties,
which in turn are closely related with their petrography and
degree of weathering. As discussed in detail in numerous
publications (See Siegesmund and Dahms 1994; Stroh-
meyer 2003; Ru¨drich 2003; Koch 2005; Hoffmann 2006;
Mosch 2008), the majority of the rocks when considering
their fabric are anisotropic, and therefore, some of their
physical properties are directionally dependent. In order to
identify possible anisotropies these properties were mea-
sured in three orthogonal directions. In the following sub-
chapter just their mean values will be discussed. All the
other data are listed in the appendix (Tables A.1–A.4).
Density and porosity
The bulk density of the Uruguayan commercial granites,
measured using the Archimedes method, as described in
Monicard (1980), vary from 2.61 g/cm3 for the Salmon
Red Syenite and 3.02 g/cm3 for the Moderate Black Dol-
erite (Table A1). All other Uruguayan commercial granites
are in the above given range and in accordance with the
values given in the compilation by Mosch and Siegesmund
(2007) (Fig. 13a) and Siegesmund and Du¨rrast (2011).
The mafic rocks show the higher matrix density values
Environ Earth Sci (2013) 69:1397–1438 1411
123
determined by the higher proportion of heavier elements
(mainly iron, calcium, and titanium) forming minerals such
as plagioclase, mafics, and opaque minerals. The granitoids
and syenitoids have lower amounts of these elements and
higher proportions of the lighter elements (such as silicon
and sodium), and therefore, show lower matrix densities.
1412 Environ Earth Sci (2013) 69:1397–1438
123
The water that a dimensional stone is capable to absorb
and retain in the pore spaces, as well as its mobility within
the pore network plays an important role in the weathering
process and the petrophysical behavior (Peschel 1977;
Weiss 1992; Siegesmund and Du¨rrast 2011). Porosity, pore
radii distribution, water uptake and capillary water uptake,
and water vapor diffusion were determined in the samples
studied to evaluate their durability when applied for con-
structive purposes (Table A.1).
The porosity was also measured by the method descri-
bed in Monicard (1980). In respect to this property all the
mafic rock and syenitoid samples analyzed are outliers in
the distribution of their respective groups as determined by
the statistical compilation of Mosch and Siegesmund
(2007) (Fig. 13b). The lower values, between 0.03 and
0.12 %, are registered by the dolerites (e.g., Absolute
Black). They have a very compact fabric, where the
interstitial space of the fine-grained subophitic texture is
completely filled by granophyric intergrowths. The Arapey
Basalt with a similar fabric shows a porosity of 0.98 %, the
highest value in the mafic rock group. This fact is con-
sidered to be a consequence of the relatively altered or
weathered condition of the Arapey Basalt samples studied
as indicated by the presence of limonite and microcracks in
plagioclase and pyroxene.
The granitoids have intermediate porosities, showing
values between 0.27 (Chamanga´ Gray Granite) and
0.80 % (Cerro A´spero Granite). The syenitoids show the
highest porosity values of the different commercial
granites considered, where the highest porosity value was
registered by the Violeta Imperial Syenite: 1.34 %. This
rock, as in the other syenitoids studied, shows a more
open interstitial space, where the feldspars show a com-
plex replacement history (e.g., relict microcline in pla-
gioclase showing albitization). The matrix is composed of
a mixture of amphibole, pyroxene, chlorite, ferristilpno-
melane, and epidote, which indicates hydrothermal
alteration and accounts for the higher porosity values
measured.
The pore size distribution determined by mercury
injection porosimetry shows a low variation between the
different groups considered (Table A1). The porosity of the
dolerites is so small that the pore radii distribution is dif-
ficult to measure; these rocks have mean pore size values
between 0.032 (Arapey Basalt) and 0.209 lm (Pimafox
Oriental Dolerite). Granitoids and syenitoids show a simi-
lar mean pore size, e.g., the fine-grained variety Cerro
A´spero Gray has an average pore radius of 0.09 lm and
Artigas Pearl Syenite 0.08 lm. The most frequent pore
radii are also very similar between all the rocks analyzed:
between 0.008 (Artigas Pearl Syenite and Moskart Granite)
and 0.335 lm (Violeta Imperial Syenite). The pore size
distribution has a significant influence on the water uptake
and the capillary water uptake.
The capillary water absorption, which was determined
following the DIN EN 13755 (2008) and DIN EN 12670
(2001) is the main mechanism acting in pores with a radius
between 0.1 lm and almost 1 mm (Siegesmund and
Du¨rrast 2011). Since there is no water circulating in the
pores the interactions between the rocks and the building
materials (e.g., mortar) are insignificant, as well as the
weathering processes that leads to the decay of the com-
mercial granites. This is especially true for the dolerites
and granitoids, which show extremely low porosity and
capillary water absorption.
The water absorption (or water uptake) of the studied
commercial granites is very low, in accordance with the
very low porosity (Table A.1). The dolerites show extre-
mely low unforced water absorption values between 0.01
and 0.03 wt%, whereas the basalt has 0.28 wt% due to its
higher porosity. The granitoids show intermediate values
between 0.07 and 0.27 wt% and the syenitoids between
0.30 and 0.43 wt%.
Water absorption values for granites are between 0.1 and
1.5 wt% (Peschel 1977). The DIN 52008 defines that rocks
with water absorption at atmospheric pressures (or unforced
water absorption) less than 0.5 wt% are weathering resis-
tant, as is the case for all Uruguayan commercial granites.
Fine-grained gray granites like the Cerro A´spero Gray
(U70) are in demand because of their low water absorption
(0.12–0.09, See Table A.1). The market for this kind of
rock is led by the Chinese commercial granite Padang
Light (G3533/G633). The data available for this granite are
doubtful (Bo¨rner and Hill 2010) and lower (0.36 wt%;
Table A.1) than in the unpublished reports from different
Chinese providers, where the water absorption of Padang
Light Granite ranges from 1.5 to 3.0 wt%. The comparable
granite from Uruguay, Cerro A´spero Granite, develops a
lower amount of staining or spots due to its lower water
absorption.
Fig. 11 Thin section images of colored commercial granites. a Ma-
homa Red Granite (U88) in cross polarized light (CPL), Or has
partially substituted Pl, as evidenced by sericitization in the center of
the image; b close-up of the previous image where Mc relicts partially
surrounded by Cal are recognized in new formed Or; c gray variety of
Moskart Granite in CPL, Pl with intense sericitization, and relicts of
Mc; d Moskart Granite (U7) in CPL, Qtz, Mc, and Pl compose the
rock, intra and intercrystalline microcracks are filled by Chl, Bt, Ser,
Cal, and Lm; e Artigas Pearl Syenite (U46) in plane polarized light
(PPL), observe the reddening of Or crystals in contact with
ferromagnesian agglomerations; f same as e but in CPL; g Salmon
Red Syenite (U15) in PPL, Pl with sericitization and partially altered
to Or, in top of image Bt partially altered to Chl, and numerous Op
grains; and h same as g but in CPL. Abbreviations after Kretz (1983)
except the ones marked with asterisk: Ab albite, Amph* amphibole,
Aug augite, Bt biotite, Cal calcite, Chl chlorite, Festil* ferristilpno-
melane, Gr. Int.* graphic intergrowth, Hbl hornblende, Lm limonite,
Mc microcline, Ms muscovite, Op* opaques, Or orthoclase, Pl
plagioclase, Qtz quartz; *Ser sericite
b
Environ Earth Sci (2013) 69:1397–1438 1413
123
The saturation coefficient S is the relation between the
unforced water absorption and the forced water absorp-
tion, as defined by Hirschwald (1912). The author related
this value with the capacity of a rock to resist weathering
and freezing. All Uruguayan commercial granites show a
very high S value, but as described in Siegesmund and
Du¨rrast (2011), this coefficient has little application in the
case of plutonic and metamorphic rocks with a bulk
density higher than 2.6 g/cm3. This assumption is derived
from the fact that the porosity of these rocks tends to be
very low, and therefore, their capacity to interact with
water. This lack of interaction between the rock and water
leads to a better rock stability against weathering and
freezing.
Water vapor diffusion
The highest vapor diffusion value indicates the higher
resistance of the rock to the transmissivity of water,
therefore the lowest permeability. The dolerites show the
highest mean values, between 5,472 for Moderate Black
and 6,713 (dimensionless) for Absolute Black (Table A.2).
Granitoids and syenitoids show similar values, with the
exception of the Maldonado Granite, which has the lowest
value of 83 in the x-direction due to its fabric anisotropy.
The other rocks in these groups show values between 374
(Moskart Granite) and 1,508 (Salmon Red Syenite). The
values obtained in the present research for granitoids and
syenitoids are in the range of those published by
Fig. 12 Different colors and de´cors in the Artigas Pearl Syenite (slab length = 10 cm)
1414 Environ Earth Sci (2013) 69:1397–1438
123
Siegesmund and Du¨rrast (2011) which measured values
between 811 and 3,869 for plutonic rocks.
In applications where the water vapor diffusion can have
an impact, such as fac¸ades and fountains, the anisotropy of
this petrophysical property should be taken into account.
One example is the Maldonado Granite, which has an
anisotropy of 1:3:3 in the x-, y-, and z-direction. Therefore,
considering the direction of the cut is necessary.
Ultrasonic wave velocities
In addition to the static Young’s modulus, it has become
commonplace to determine the dynamic Young’s modulus
by measuring the ultrasonic velocity for evaluating the
degree of structural damage in dimensional stones (Ko¨hler
1991; Siegesmund and Du¨rrast 2011). Under dry conditions
the Vp (compressive waves) velocities should be above
5 km/s in unweathered granitoids (Illiev 1967).
The Uruguayan commercial granites show ultrasound
velocities (Vp) between 3.38 km/s (Cerro A´spero Granite
in z-direction) and 6.49 km/s (Moderate Black Dolerite in
y-direction). The mafic rocks show the higher ultrasound
values, between 5.41 and 6.49 km/s and the granitoids and
syenitoids intermediate ones, between 3.38 and 5.85 km/s.
The only samples showing anisotropy values higher than
10 % are Maldonado Gray Granite, with around 10 %
anisotropy and around 21 % in the Cerro A´spero Gray
Granite.
Sampling was carried out in quarries, exclusively in
fresh rocks, with the exception of the Arapey Basalt,
where this was not possible. The values presented here
can be used as standards for comparative measurements
of fresh and unweathered rocks. Dolerites show the most
remarkable values, where the anisotropy is very low
(2–3 %) as indicated by the homogeneous fabric in these
rocks.
Fig. 13 Box plots of some
petrophysical properties of
commercial granites worldwide
(redrawn after Mosch 2008) and
Uruguay (each colored dot
represents an average value)
a bulk density; b porosity;
c uniaxial compressive strength
(UCS); d flexural strength; and
e tensile strength
Environ Earth Sci (2013) 69:1397–1438 1415
123
Thermal expansion
Numerous dimensional stones have a weathering sensitiv-
ity/vulnerability against thermal stresses, caused by an
expansion of the material at high temperatures and a con-
traction with subsequent cooling. The thermal expansion is
essentially controlled by the mineralogical composition
and fabric of the rock (Koch and Siegesmund 2004; Koch
2005; Siegesmund et al. 2008).
In granites the thermal expansion and its associated
processes (e.g., progressive microcracking leading to
bowing) are more complex than in marbles. This is mainly
due to the monomineralogical composition of marbles
(calcite or dolomite), in contrast to granites that have at
least three minerals present or generally more. Each min-
eral has a different thermal expansion and some of them are
anisotropic with respect to this property. Quartz has the
lowest thermal expansion coefficient (a) parallel to the
c-axis (7.7 9 10-6 K-1) and the highest perpendicular to it
(a = 13 9 10-6 K-1) (Siegesmund et al. 2008). Biotite is
also anisotropic with (a = 17.3 9 10-6 K-1) parallel to
the c-axis and 9.7 9 10-6 K-1 perpendicular to it (Sieg-
esmund et al. 2008). High plagioclase contents lead to low
a values, due to the extremely small volume expansion of
this mineral (Weiss et al. 2004).
Castro de Lima and Paraguassu´ (2004) analyzed the
thermal expansion coefficient (a) of 19 commercial gran-
ites and concluded that an increment in porosity leads to a
decrease in a, whereas an increment in grain size or quartz
content increases a. These authors also analyzed the
directional dependency of a, concluding that for the sam-
ples studied there is no dependency.
The thermal expansion coefficient (a) for the commer-
cial granites varies from 5.74 (Artigas Pearl in the
x-direction) to 9.47 9 10-6 K-1 (Moskart in the y-direc-
tion) (Table A.2). The range of values obtained is compa-
rable with those reported for magmatic rocks by Strohmeyer
(2003), Hoffmann (2006), Weiss et al. (2004), Siegesmund
et al. (2008), and Va´zquez et al. (2011). The mafic rocks
show the lowest mean a, since these rocks show the lowest
Fig. 14 Statistical values of some petrophysical properties of com-
mercial granites worldwide (gray dots and ellipses after Mosch
(2009). The ellipses represent 80 % of the expected values for each
rock group) and Uruguay (each colored dot represents an average
value of a commercial granitic stone) a bulk density versus uniaxial
compressive strength (UCS), b porosity versus uniaxial compressive
strength, c bulk density versus flexural strength, and d porosity versus
flexural strength
1416 Environ Earth Sci (2013) 69:1397–1438
123
mean grain size and quartz content, and the highest pro-
portion of plagioclase. Granitoids show the highest mean a
value and the highest quartz content. The syenitoids, with
intermediate a values, show a low proportion of quartz and
the highest porosity values. These relationships are in
accordance with the observations made by Castro de Lima
and Paraguassu´ (2004) and Va´zquez et al. (2011).
Generally, the samples show anisotropies lower than
11 % in their thermal expansion, but there are two cases
where higher anisotropies were measured: Artigas Pearl
Syenite (15 %) and Moskart Granite (18 %). Both com-
mercial granites are very coarse-grained. A similar
behavior was reported by Va´zquez et al. (2011) in three
coarse- to very coarse-grained commercial granites.
Differential deterioration can occur in light-colored
granitoids with dark-colored enclaves or xenoliths due to
the albedo effect or differential thermal response to inso-
lation (Go´mez-Heras et al. 2006; Steiger et al. 2011). The
deterioration will generally be expressed by the spalling of
enclaves or xenoliths (Go´mez-Heras et al. 2006).
The thermal expansion behavior of a dimensional stone
is closely related to its bowing behavior when applied as
slabs for outdoor fac¸ade cladding (Siegesmund et al. 2008;
Va´zquez et al. 2011). For bowing the same factors influ-
encing thermal expansion are relevant: coarse- to very
coarse-grained texture, mineral shape-preferred orientation
and porosity (Va´zquez et al. 2011).
When considering a building application with thermal
exposure from one direction (e.g., fac¸ades), the rocks
showing a high anisotropy in thermal expansion and flex-
ural strength should be used in the most favorable direction
(the one showing higher resistance to deterioration pro-
cesses). The potential bowing behavior of a commercial
granitic rock must be examined prior to its use as a building
element.
Petromechanical properties
Uniaxial compressive strength (UCS)
According to Mosch and Siegesmund (2007), uniaxial
compressive strength (UCS) values in plutonic rocks vary
from 60 to 292 MPa; the values for the gabbro-diorite
subgroup are always in the upper quartile (Fig. 13c). In
Fig. 15 a Stereogram of the
Salmon Red Syenite deposit;
b theoretical model of the joint
sets affecting the Salmon Red
deposit; c raw block resulting
from the presence of the joint
sets and possible block resulting
from its squaring; d stereogram
of the Moskart Granite deposit;
e theoretical model of the joint
sets affecting the deposit; and
f raw block and finished block
as a result of squaring
Environ Earth Sci (2013) 69:1397–1438 1417
123
Uruguayan commercial granites, whose UCS was deter-
mined following the DIN EN 12372 (1999), the same
behavior can be observed (Table A.3; Fig. 13c). Absolute
Black Dolerite shows an extremely high value of 369 MPa,
whereas the mafic rock with the lower UCS value is the
Arapey Basalt with 228 MPa. The granitoids belong to the
granite and granodiorite–tonalite groups determined by
Mosch (2008). They show higher UCS values than the
median for both groups, for some granite this value is
higher than the upper quartile (197 MPa for Cuchilla del
Perdido and Cerro A´spero Granites). The syenitoids
(monzonite-syenite group of Mosch 2008) also show
higher or similar values that the median for this group, with
the exception of the Artigas Pearl Syenite that has an UCS
value lower than the lower quartile (137 MPa).
The only rock analyzed showing a distinct rock fabric
and a stretching lineation is the Maldonado Granite
(Oyhantc¸abal 2005). However, this rock also shows no
anisotropy in the compressive strength.
Young’s modulus
The maximum Young’s modulus E value is 32.9 GPa for
the Absolute Black Dolerite in the x-direction and in the y-
direction for the Chamanga´ Gray Granodiorite (Table A.3).
The Cuchilla del Perdido Granite shows the lowest value:
11.9 GPa in the z-direction. A general trend, similar to that
described by Hoffmann (2006), can be observed in the
relationship of the Young’s Modulus E and the UCS. The
samples that have the higher UCS also have the higher
Young’s Modulus E.
Indirect tensile strength
The indirect tensile strength values for all commercial
granites considered are lower than the lower quartile
determined by Mosch (2008) and most of the values are
outliers in the normal statistical distribution (Fig. 13e). The
higher values are those of the mafic rocks, where the dol-
erite Absolute Black has the highest value (17.9 MPa),
followed by Moderate Black and Pimafox dolerites, with
15.6 and 14.5 MPa, respectively. Artigas Pearl Syenite
shows the lowest value (5.8 MPa), followed by Moskart
granite (7.7 MPa) (Table A.3).
Flexural strength
Comparing the flexural strength values, determined
according to the DIN EN 12372 (1999), with those of
Mosch (2008) (Fig. 13d), it can be seen that the dolerites
lie far above the highest values, being outliers in the dis-
tribution determined by the aforementioned author. The
granitoid groups show values that are either higher than the
upper quartile (Cuchilla del Perdido and Maldonado
granites, with 20.2 and 20.4 MPa, respectively) or lower
than the lower quartile (Moskart Granite, with 8.3 MPa)
(Table A.4). Chamanga´ Granodiorite shows a flexural
strength that is higher than the upper quartile (20.4 MPa).
Fig. 16 Block sizes of the
different quarries analyzed
using three different methods
Singewald (1992), Palmstrøm
(1982, 1996, 2001), and Sousa
(2010)
1418 Environ Earth Sci (2013) 69:1397–1438
123
The syenitoid group shows very different values. Salmon
Red is in the upper quartile (15.6 MPa), the Violeta
Imperial value is lower than the lower quartile (10.0 MPa),
and Artigas Pearl is 8.3 MPa.
Breaking load at dowel hole
Values obtained for breaking load at the dowel hole (DIN
EN 13364 2002) vary between 1.8 kN (Moskart Granite)
and 4.7 kN (Absolute Black Dolerite) (Table A.4). Mafic
rocks show the highest values, followed by the granitoids
with the exception of Moskart Granite and then the sye-
nitoids, with the lowest values, in particular Artigas Pearl
Syenite with 1.9 kN. Due to its fabric anisotropy, the
Maldonado Granite was tested in three different directions
according to the standard procedure. It shows a variation
between 2.8 (Type IIa, dowels parallel to foliation) and 3.5
kN (Type IIb, dowels perpendicular to foliation). Accord-
ing to the data of Rohowski (2001), mafic rocks can be
compared with mafic volcanics and tephrite (basalt lava)
with breaking load values around 4 kN. The granitoids and
syenitoids can be compared with the granite and gneiss of
Rohowski (2001), with values around 3 kN.
A slab with a thickness of 30 mm composed of coarse-
grained or very coarse-grained granitoids or in particular
syenitoids, can eventually be represented by only two or
three crystal grains. This kind of slab can thus have a
limited strength (flexural, indirect tensile and compressive
strengths, and breaking load at the dowel hole) and
durability.
Abrasion strength
The abrasion strength was determined as described in the
DIN 52108 (1988). The lower values of abrasion strength
show the higher resistance of the rock to abrasion, therefore
the rock most resistant to abrasion is the Pimafox Dolerite,
with a value of 2.1 cm3/50 cm2 (Table A.4). The less
resistant rock is Arapey Basalt, with a value of 3.8 cm3/
50 cm2. All Uruguayan commercial granites have lower
values than those discussed in the literature (Peschel 1977;
Strohmeyer 2003; Siegesmund and Du¨rrast 2011).
The difference in the mechanical strength values observed
between the various rocks considered can be explained by the
fact that they differ in their mineralogical composition and
fabric (Strohmeyer 2003). The mafic rocks show the highest
strength values and this is related to specific characteristics of
their fabric that make them more resistant: a fine- to medium-
grain size, subophitic texture, and in the case of the dolerites
the graphic intergrowth that seals the interstitial spaces
between the crystals making the rock very cohesive. This is
well illustrated when comparing the UCS and flexural strength
values with the bulk density and porosity (Fig. 14).T
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Environ Earth Sci (2013) 69:1397–1438 1419
123
Generally, the very coarse-grained rocks show the
lowest strength values; this is the case in the Moskart
Granite and Artigas Pearl Syenite. This is probably related
to the presence of microcracks and the cleavage of the
large alkali feldspar present in these rocks. The strength of
a rock can also be correlated with the apparent density and
effective porosity: the higher density of a rock and the
lower its porosity determines higher strength values
(Morales Demarco et al. 2007; Mosch 2008). This corre-
lation can be observed in all commercial granites consid-
ered in the present study (Fig. 14).
Deposit characterization
The evaluation of the mineral deposit was carried out fol-
lowing the International Framework Classification of the
United Nations/UNFCR (UN 2009). The classification is
based on three categories: (i) degree of favorability of social
and economic conditions (e.g., market prices, relevant legal,
and environmental conditions) (E-axis); (ii) maturity of
studies and commitments to implement mining plans that
determine the feasibility of the mining project (F-axis); and
(iii) level of confidence in the geological knowledge and
potential recoverability of the quantities (the G-axis). Com-
mercial projects are the ones feasible from a technical, eco-
nomic, and social point of view. Dimensional stone deposits
are not representative of typical mineral deposits as for
example massive mineral deposits (construction aggregates,
e.g., sand, gravel). The industrial requirements in de´cor and
block volume (or size, or dimensions) determine the selection
of a section inside a deposit, in which these requirements are
achieved and are at the same time demanded by the market
(Stein 2007). Basically, some aspects of the evaluation of
aggregate deposits can be applied in the case of dimensional
stones (Kelter et al. 1999). An example is the application of
mining techniques (e.g., diamond wire saw) that have proved
to be effective in comparable dimensional stone deposits.
The geological and mining knowledge of the analyzed
deposits exhibits a highly differentiated state of the art. This
ranges from a general assignment of a lithological unit (Cu-
chilla del Perdido Granite) to many years of geological
investigations in active mining districts (dolerite deposits,
e.g., Moderate Black Dolerite U8, U11O, U66). Both the
growth of the international market for dimensional stone and
the industrial development in the production requires more
intensive research into the feasibility of mining the deposits:
(1) The selection of the de´cor, especially the color is
determined by international trends, which are not
constant. Some trends are cyclical for decades, but
others are acyclical. Rocks with colors outside of the
prevailing trend are temporarily or only partially
usable (e.g., the pink facies of Artigas Pearl Syenite).
(2) The dimensional stone raw blocks are processed mainly
in industrial plants. For this purpose the blocks must
have, on one hand, an orthogonal form (Fig. 15) and a
minimum size, and on the other hand the choice of the
block size is often related to the optimal utilization of the
resource related to the size of the end product (e.g., block
size between 3.5 and 9 m3).
(3) Due to modern requirements for the use and con-
struction of buildings, rocks with the same color and
de´cor will be chosen for a technical function in
accordance to their maximum resistance of a selected
property (e.g., rocks with high abrasion resistance as
floor slabs).
The effects of the above-mentioned international market
mechanisms were directly decisive for the development of
the natural stone industry in Uruguay in the last 20 years.
Fig. 17 Stereograms (equal
area projection, lower
hemisphere) showing the
measured joints using Stereo
Net a Arapey Basalt from the
Cerro del Estado quarry
(contours 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 times
uniform distribution: t.u.d.);
b Cerro A´spero Granite quarries
(contours 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 times
uniform distribution);
c Sacramento Dolerite from the
Rosarito quarry (contours 1, 2,
3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 t.u.d.);
d Moskart Granite (contours 1,
2, 3, 4, 5 t.u.d.); e Artigas
Syenite (contours 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
7 t.u.d.); and f Violeta Imperial
(contours 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 t.u.d.)
1420 Environ Earth Sci (2013) 69:1397–1438
123
Because of its natural conditions (climate), the country
could not follow the international trend toward yellow
dimensional stones in the years 1995–2006. This particular
color is due to limonitic alteration of the rocks (a charac-
teristic of tropical countries), which, nevertheless, retain
their essential petrophysical properties. The rocks offered
did not fulfill the international trend and their business
volume significantly declined. Only the timeless de´cor and
color offered by the dark gray to black dolerites occupy a
permanent place on the international market. Even this
segment needs qualitative development to be able to
compete with the blocks offered from Northern China and
India exhibiting larger dimensions.
The criteria for deposit profitability require geologic
studies that can determine the following controlling elements:
(1) An inventory of the joint sets to determine the
frequency of minimum dimension of exploitable
blocks to achieve the optimal block size for the
industry, as well as to minimize the waste material.
Fig. 18 Rosarito dolerite
quarry a general view of the
upper and lower floor; b joint
set frequency of the upper floor;
c joint set frequency of the
lower floor; d median block
volume of the upper floor; and
e median block volume of the
lower floor
Environ Earth Sci (2013) 69:1397–1438 1421
123
(2) Mineralogical and structural factors that influence the
formation, stability, and variability of the fabric and color.
(3) Factors of the genesis of the deposit, as well as the
influence of alteration, which causes an impact on the
relevant petrophysical properties, that favor or limit
the usability.
Block sizes
For the evaluation of the yield of a quarry, the block sizes
must be estimated. This can be done as described by
Singewald (1992), Palmstrøm (1982, 1996, 2001), and
Sousa (2010). All these authors use the joint set frequency
to estimate the mean or median block sizes. Singewald
(1992) method is the less complex to use, since it calculates
Vb (block volume) by multiplying the average distribution
of three main joint sets (See Eq. 1). Palmstrøm (1982,
1996, 2001) uses the Jv (volumetric joint count) (See
Eq. 2) and b (block shape factor; Eq. 3) for calculating Vb
(See Eq. 4). Sousa (2010) uses Jmed (median volumetric
joint count) (See Eq. 5); the block volume was calculated
afterward using (Eq. 4). The parameters x, y, z and S1, S2,
S3 are the distances between the different joints that
Fig. 19 3D model of the
Maldonado Granite made using
3D Block Expert a section of
the quarry modeled (total
volume 191 m3), some joints
are marked in red, yz-plane is
the foliation plane, scale in
meters; b, c 3D view of the
section modeled; d stereogram
of the Maldonado quarry with
walls of section modeled in blue
(x) and green (y); e joint
frequency histogram of the
quarry; and f raw block volume
distribution using 3D Block
Expert
1422 Environ Earth Sci (2013) 69:1397–1438
123
compose a joint set, and a1, a2, and a3 the angles between
these joint sets.
Vaverage ¼ xaverage  yaverage  zaverage ð1Þ
Jv ¼ 1=S1 þ 1=S2 þ 1=S3 ð2Þ
b ¼ a2 þ a2  a3 þ a3ð Þ3= a2  a3ð Þ2 ð3Þ
Vb ¼ b  Jv  3  1=Sin a1  Sin a2  Sin a3 ð4Þ
Jmed ¼ 1=S1med þ 1=S2med þ 1=S3med ð5Þ
The three methods were applied in several Uruguayan
quarries and different block sizes were obtained (Table 5;
Fig. 16). Table 6 shows that the Sousa (2010) is the most
conservative estimation, since it uses the median and not
the average joint spacing as the other methods. For all the
cases analyzed the joints were measured and afterward
their spacing, taking into account to which joint set they
belong. The orientations of the joints are shown in the
stereograms in Fig. 17.
When possible, the joint sets as well as their spacing in
more than one floor were measured. In the case of the
Artigas Pearl syenite quarry, the boulder zone at the top of
the deposit was also measured (U46_b). The sizes of these
boulders are greater than the average and median blocks
calculated using the equations above for the floors in the
quarry itself (Table 6). In the case of the Rosarito dolerite
quarry, block sizes in the lower floor are higher than in the
upper floor, since the joint density is also higher in the
upper floor (Fig. 18).
Fig. 20 3D model of the
Salmon Red Syenite made using
3D Block Expert a section of
the quarry modeled (total
volume 396 m3) with some of
the joints marked in red, scale in
meters; b, c 3D view of the
section modeled; d stereogram
of the Maldonado quarry with
walls of section modeled in blue
(x) and green (y); e joint
frequency histogram of the
quarry; and f raw block volume
distribution using 3D Block
Expert
Environ Earth Sci (2013) 69:1397–1438 1423
123
In the Maldonado Granite and especially in the Artigas
Syenite the opposite occurs. A possible explanation for this
abnormal behavior can be found in the two-stage landform
development model proposed by Bu¨del (1957) and described
by Twidale (2002). In the first stage, surface rock is affected
by the weathering of the materials around the joints, and
boulders start to form. Weathering then proceeds downwards
into the subsurface, where the meteoric water stays longer in
contact with the rock. In the second stage, the regolith
between the joints of the surface is transported, but not with
the regolith of the subsurface. Weathering can proceed more
intensely in the subsurface since water is available.
Fig. 21 a, c, e, g Cufre´ Granite quarry; b, d, f, h Cerro A´spero Granite quarry number 192. a, b Block deposit; c, d Block sizes measured directly
in the quarries; e, f joint set distribution; and g, h Plausible block sizes being obtained in the quarries studied
1424 Environ Earth Sci (2013) 69:1397–1438
123
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Environ Earth Sci (2013) 69:1397–1438 1425
123
This results in a boulder zone at the top and a weathered
zone underneath, whose thickness depends on the intensity
and duration of weathering. For dimensional granitic
deposits it is important to determine the depth at which this
weathering effect ends.
Another estimation method for block sizes uses the
software 3D-Block Expert described in Nikolayew et al.
(2007), Siegesmund et al. (2007a, b), and Mosch et al.
(2010). This program provides a better spatial distribution
of the blocks in the section of the quarry considered for an
optimized extraction. Sections of three quarries were
modeled using this program: the Maldonado Granite
(Fig. 19), Cufre´ Granite, and the Salmon Red Syenite
(Fig. 20). In the Cufre´ Granite the whole quarry was
modeled (a total volume of 9,979 m3), but the total amount
of joints measured was very low (seven). The quarry is
most likely not very representative of the global behavior
of the deposit, and therefore, the results of the tectonic
analyses overestimates the block sizes obtained by real
mining.
In the Maldonado Granite model (Fig. 19a–c) two sub-
vertical joint sets are observable, which are orthogonal to
each other, and a third joint set that is subhorizontal with a
significant dip (Fig. 19d, e). This last joint set affects the
deposit negatively, since it diagonally crosscuts the blocks
that would otherwise be regular. The joint set parallel to the
yz-wall is determined by the foliation of the rock, as
depicted in Fig. 19a. The raw block size distribution
(Fig. 19f) shows that the highest proportion of raw blocks
is larger than 8 m3.
The Salmon Red Syenite model (Fig. 20a–c) shows a
lower amount of joints affecting the considered section.
However, there are four joint sets affecting the rock and
this is evidenced by the presence of vertical joints that are
not orthogonal (Fig. 20d, e). The raw block distribution
shows that most of the blocks that this section is able to
produce are between 3.5 and 6.5 m3 and larger than 8 m3
(Fig. 20f).
In two inactive quarries it was possible to measure the
blocks remaining after the commercialization of the best
ones. These are probably not the largest blocks that those
quarries once produced (Fig. 21a, b). Most of the blocks
in the Cufre´ Gray Blue quarry number 172 have a vol-
ume between 1 and 6.5 m3 (Fig. 21c) being larger than
those in the Cerro A´spero quarry (Fig. 21d). This is in
accordance with the joint set frequency measured for
both quarries (Fig. 21e, f) and the results acquired by
applying the method of Singewald (1992), Palmstrøm
(1982, 1996, 2001), and Sousa (2010) (Table 6; Fig. 16).
The application of these methods in the Cufre´ quarry
leads to a block size that is extremely large, but in
accordance with those sizes obtained using the program
3D Block Expert.T
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1426 Environ Earth Sci (2013) 69:1397–1438
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Reserves and economic aspects
The feasibility of the utilization of a deposit is determined
not just by the dimensions of the deposit, but also by the
economic demands and the deposit geometry, the stability
of the country rock and the environmental conditions
(clima, infrastructure, etc.). Nevertheless, the decisive cri-
terion is the volume of the deposit. This depends on the
dimensions of occurrence of the rock, which actually meets
the criteria of a marketable color and de´cor with exploit-
able block sizes. In the present research the surface area
has been determined by the analysis of geological maps,
satellite images, and observations in the field. A careful
analysis of the morphology of the area of the deposit can
lead to the identification of sectors not suitable for mining
(e.g., occurrence of faults or highly fractured sectors).
For the calculation of maximal reserves, it is reasonable
to assume a maximum depth of 100 m. The reasons for not
considering a greater depth are the stability of the rock
massif, the economic costs of mining (e.g., transport costs,
cost of water pumping, mine ventilation, safety of the staff,
etc.), and rock mechanical problems (stress relief at greater
depth can lead to intense fracturing, limiting the production
of blocks). In stratiform deposits only the maximum depth
of the strata is exploitable.
The exploration and evaluation of a dimensional stone
deposit should consider, on the one hand, the maximum
extension of the reserve. On the other hand, a minimum
deposit volume is required. The opening and operation of
a quarry demands a significant investment that is com-
monly covered by loans. The repayment period is
between 10 years for movable goods and 30 years for
immovable properties. For dimensional stones a 30-year
repayment period is also normally accepted. The main
reason is that this kind of resource is not only listed on
the stock exchange and their commercialization allows
relatively low profit margins, but also due to its depen-
dence on the prevailing taste (color and de´cor trends) and
the trade cycles of the construction industry. In many
countries the approval of operating plans for a quarry is
based on these terms of repayment. For these reasons a
minimum reserve volume should be calculated for a
30-year operation:
(a) Scheduled annual production volume, taking into
account non-productive periods (rainy seasons, freez-
ing temperatures, impassable transportation routes,
work regime).
(b) Mining rate related to the joint systems inventory of
the deposit.
(c) Mining rate by squaring of the industrial blocks.
(d) Mining rate considering the influence of lithological
elements, which require a differentiation by taking
into account the quality of the color and de´cor, which
causes an impact on the revenue.
(e) In addition, the rate of utilizable raw material for the
fabrication of products that are not taken into account
in the industrial usable blocks (e.g., small blocks for
self-production, building bricks, paving materials).
Mafic rocks
The mafic rock deposits provide one of the most important
varieties of dimensional stone: the black commercial
granite. In Uruguay they are mainly represented by the
dolerite dike swarm, which intrudes into an area covering
20,000 km2 in the southwestern part of the country.
The dikes are normally not wider than 40 m and around
one kilometer long. The maximal depth reached in the
quarries by the prevailing mining method is about eight
meters. In similar deposits in northern China and southern
Sweden depths of more than 50 m are possible.
In these kinds of deposits the maximum mineable depth
is a very relevant factor for the economic viability of the
mine. The stability of the country rock is an important
parameter to consider when the mining proceeds down-
wards. When the country rock is not stable enough, the
mining can lead to landslides compromising the safety of
the personnel (staff) and the continuity of the mining itself.
This holds especially true in the case of the Uruguayan
dolerite deposits, where the contacts of the dikes with the
country rock are sub-vertical and dipping steeply to the
southeast (Morales Demarco et al. 2011). The waste rock
produced in the mining of the dolerites is usually higher
than that of other commercial granites with a different
geometry.
In several dikes from Group A (high TiO2) a variation of
the grain size is observable from the contact with the
country rocks (where the grain size is finer) to the center of
the intrusion (where the grain size is coarser). Thus, two
varieties of commercial granites can be mined: one is a
very fine-grained and deep black color (Absolute Black)
and another is dark gray in color (Moderate Black) (Mor-
ales Demarco et al. 2011). Based on a minimum of 19
identified productive dikes in the dike swarm outcrop area
(20,000 m2), these authors proposed a probable reserve of
407,500 m3, being 10 % of Absolute Black quality.
Economic aspects of mafic rock deposits
Due to their high quality color, de´cor, and petrophysical
properties these rocks are very valuable. They have inter-
national prices between 1,200 and 1,700 US$/m3 free on
board (FOB) for the Absolute Black and between 900 and
1,200 US$/m3 FOB for the Moderate Black (Table 7).
Environ Earth Sci (2013) 69:1397–1438 1427
123
For Moderate Black a probable reserve of 366,750 m3 is
proposed (Morales Demarco et al. 2011). Taking an average
value of 1,000 US$/m3 FOB an annual production value of
12.2 million US$ of Moderate Black can be calculated for a
30-year mining period. Absolute Black has a lower probable
reserve of 40,750 m3 (Morales Demarco et al. 2011), but a
higher price, of 1,500 US$/m3. For the same mining period
would lead to a value of 2 million US$/year.
Gray Granitoids
The Uruguayan granitoids only show a small variety of the
typical colors and de´cors of the internationally marketed
granitoids. Most of the granitoids mined in the country are
gray and medium-grained. This kind of hard dimensional
stone is widespread worldwide and their de´cor is not so
interesting for the international market. Nevertheless, three
of them are interesting for the local and regional markets:
Cufre´, Maldonado, and Cerro A´spero. The last one is
possibly the most relevant due to its fine-grained texture,
light gray color, and excellent petrophysical properties.
Cerro A´spero Granite
The mining district Cerro A´spero Granite (U70) is located
around 13 km west of the city of Rocha, in eastern Uru-
guay (Fig. 5). This district contains four quarries. Two of
them are relatively large quarries (about 3,000 m2), which
are presently inactive and the other two are still active but
smaller (around 400 m2).
The rock is a fine- to medium-grained light gray granite
with a relatively scarce occurrence of enclaves or veins. Its
color and de´cor are very interesting for the international
market, and since this rock has very good petrophysical
qualities, it could compete for a place in the fine-grained
gray granites sector.
The quarries are located in a granitic massif occupying
an area of approximately 1.8 km2, which is expressed in
the geomorphology as a gentle slope (1.5 %) hill, known as
Cerro A´spero. The rock mined is characterized by a slight
differentiation in grain size between fine- and medium-
grained and a light gray color. Phenocrysts of plagioclase
of white and light gray colors (up to 10 mm) and black
clots of biotite (up to 5 mm) can eventually appear. Small
mafic enclaves (up to 3 cm) and narrow aplitic dikes (up to
1 cm) are relatively rare. The de´cor and color of this
granite is very homogeneous.
A boulder zone occurs at the top of the hill, with potential
interest for the squaring of large blocks. There the yield of
production is expected to be very high (around 90 %). The
underlying weathered zone is around two meters thick in the
already opened quarries. This zone represents waste mate-
rial for the dimensional stone industry, but it could be used
for road paving and quarry filling after the mining ceases,
thus reducing the cost of mining.
The most economically interesting sector is on the
eastern side of this granitic massif, where one of the large
inactive quarries is located (quarry number 192). The
factors that make this sector more interesting are the fine
grain size of the rock and the more favorable joint set
distribution.
The distribution of the fine-grained area is around
90,000 m2. A minimum depth of 10 m can be easily
reached taking into account the mining situation in the
deposit. The gentle slope of the hill where the deposit is
localized allows the consideration of the surface as flat to
simplify the calculations. This assumption is valid for all the
following deposits considered. The raw production of this
sector would be around 0.9 million m3. The yield of pro-
duction inferred is 50 % taking into account the blocks in
the deposit and the waste material produced: 450,000 m3.
The block size determined using the Singewald (1992),
Palmstrøm (1982, 1996, 2001) and Sousa (2010) methods
are 6.16 and 3.27 m3, the maximum and median, respec-
tively. The sizes of the blocks in the deposit were measured
(Fig. 18b, d) and they are smaller than those calculated
using the cited methods. This is because they are the blocks
left behind after the commercialization of the better ones,
probably due to their inferior quality or smaller size.
Quarry number 193, the second largest quarry, is also
currently inactive and located in the western sector of the
deposit. The rock is characterized by its medium-grained
texture and by the relatively higher frequency of joints.
From the joint set distribution measurements, a fault-
damage zone presumably affects this quarry, since the
block sizes calculated using the Palmstrøm (2001) and
Sousa (2010) methods are significantly smaller than those
obtained for quarry number 192 (Table 6). In fact, this
quarry produces small paving stones (around 0.04 m3)
using unsophisticated technology.
Cufre´ Gray Blue Granite
The Cufre´ Gray Blue Granite deposit is located 16 km
from Nueva Helvecia, in the Colonia department. The only
quarry in the area is now inactive. The rock is a medium-
grained gray granite with relatively frequent mafic enclaves
and narrow aplitic dikes and a gentle foliation.
The previously described methods of Palmstrøm (1982,
1996, 2001) and Sousa (2010) probably overestimate the
plausible block sizes being mined in this deposit. This is
due to the lack of visible joints affecting the rock massif in
the observed quarry. Nevertheless, taking into account the
real block size distribution measured in the blocks left out
in the quarry, it is possible to assume a production of large
blocks suitable for processing by gang saw blade.
1428 Environ Earth Sci (2013) 69:1397–1438
123
The total outcrop area is around 15 km2, but the
potentially most interesting zone is about eight hectares
(80,000 m2), where the quarry was opened. The weathered
zone is relatively narrow, around 1–1.5 m that has to be
considered waste material in the cost calculation. A mini-
mum mining depth of 10 m would lead to a total volume
available for extraction of approximately 800,000 m3. A
yield of 30 % is possible for this deposit taking into
account the structural elements, such as mafic enclaves,
dikes, and the low incidence of joints. From this
240,000 m3 to be produced, just around 10 % will attain
the requirements for exportable blocks.
Maldonado Granite
Maldonado district is located five kilometers from the cities
of Maldonado and Punta del Este. There are three active
quarries, whose production consists mainly of small blocks
with rough surfaces for the local market.
The rock is characterized by a dark gray color and a
coarse-grained and foliated fabric. In the upper floor of the
quarry the evidence for weathering is visible by the oxi-
dation of the biotite clots as limonitic (orange) spots.
Elongated mafic enclaves and aplitic dikes are aligned
within the foliation and so homogeneously distributed that
they act as part of the de´cor.
The district area is about 1.3 km2 and 5 % of it could be
possibly mined. Considering a mining depth of 10 m at
several levels, the total volume would be 650,000 m3. The
normal yield for this kind of mining in Uruguay is around
30 %. Since the requirements for this rock are not high, there
is no limitation in respect to block size. This is very relevant
because, even though the raw block size distribution mod-
eled using the software 3D Block Expert show positive
results (Fig. 19), the block size calculations using the
Palmstrøm (1982, 1996, 2001) and Sousa (2010) methods
show very small block sizes (\0.20 m3) (Table 6), making
this rock incapable of entering international markets.
Moskart Granite
The Moskart Granite district is situated in the locality of
Soca, about 50 km east of Montevideo. Several quarries
were active in this district; however, at present there are no
mining activities. These activities were in close connection
with more traditional farming activities (e.g., agriculture
and livestock).
This district has an area of about 800,000 m2, being 10 %,
located in different sectors of the district and interesting for
mining. For a reserve calculation a mining depth of 10 m can
be considered, even though it is possible to reach larger
depths due to the stability of the rock massif. The yield of this
dimensional granite is considered to be high (about 50 %)
allowing for the absence of waste material in the areas sur-
rounding the quarries. A probable reserve of 400,000 m3 is
calculated for the Moskart Granite deposit.
From the block size calculations relatively small block
sizes are expected. The most conservative method (Sousa
2010) calculations determine a median block size of 1.8 m3.
Economic aspects of gray granitoid deposits
Gray granitoid deposits show a relatively narrow de´cor
range and their petrophysical properties are very good. The
prices for these granites range between 200 and 300 US$/
m3 FOB (Table 7).
From the reserve calculations, the Cerro A´spero Granite
deposit could produce annually up to 15,000 m3 of large-,
medium-, and small-sized blocks. These blocks could be
traded with prices of around 200–300 US$, depending on
their sizes, color, and de´cor quality. The annual quarry
gross income would be between 3 and 4.5 million US$.
For Cufre´ Gray Granite an annual production rate of
8,000 m3 is proposed. Considering an international price for
this kind of dimensional stone of 200 US$/m3, the annual
quarry gross income would be around 1.6 million US$.
An annual rate of 6,500 m3 is estimated for Maldonado
Gray Granite deposit. The annular income taking a price of
200 US$/m3 would be 1.3 million US$.
The Moskart Granite is with no doubt the exception in
this group, since its de´cor is very unique and it is possible
to square large blocks making this rock very competitive.
Its price is between 400 and 500 US$/m3 FOB (Table 7).
The yearly production rate would be 13,000 m3. Consid-
ering that 10 % of this production are exportable blocks
and taking the price in m3 of 450 US$, an exportation
income of 585,000 US$ should be expected.
Syenitoids
Uruguayan syenitoids are mined in two districts in the
Sierra de las A´nimas Complex. Since the start of produc-
tion at the beginning of the 20th century and before the
economic crisis in Uruguay in 2002, the production took
place in small quarries offering a diverse color spectrum. In
the southern mining area (Pan de Azu´car—Piria´polis) large
quarries were located in the Cerro Pan de Azu´car and
Sierra de las Palmas hills with a capacity to provide
material for export. During the 1980s and 1990s, mining
activity was concentrated in small quarries in the northern
mining district (the Camino del Amigo-Estancia Guazu-
bira´). Nowadays all quarries are inactive.
The color and de´cor of the syenitoids are a major con-
trolling parameter of the deposit. They are related to the
amount and grain size of the feldspars, and the color
development related to hydrothermal alteration.
Environ Earth Sci (2013) 69:1397–1438 1429
123
Artigas Pearl
This deposit shows hydrothermal alteration and comprises
a total exposure of 4.6 km2. Considering the outcrop con-
ditions and the geological findings, an area of 90,000 m2
can be mined. Due to the intrusion of dikes, a decrease of
30 % in the possible reserve volume has to be considered.
The presence of dikes (mainly quartz alkali feldspar tra-
chyte) leads to a high rate of waste material.
The waste material of the weathered section on the top
of the deposit is not included in this estimation. Individual
boulders are exposed in this section and are of industrial
value, as long as good petrophysical properties stay and are
not affected by joints. However, the amount of the waste
material to be removed in the weathered section below the
boulder zone is calculated to be around 90 %.
The joint distance measured thus far within the outcrops
of the deposit indicates a decrease of the joint distance with
the depth (See Table 6). At what depth the rock (Artigas
Pearl Syenite) is weathered and the joints opened, is still an
uncertainty. Hence, only boulders at the top of the hill and
in the upper floor can be mined at present. Average block
sizes of 38.1 and 2.14 m3 (median) were determined for the
boulder zone and upper floor, respectively. A new exploi-
tation of this upper floor should be geared to the geometry
of the surface. The mining rate of the boulder zone is
estimated to be very high (around 50 %), being drastically
lower in the upper floor by around 10 %. Considering that
the boulder zone extends for an area of 240,000 m2 and the
average height is 5 m, the probable reserve of this zone
taking into consideration the yield of the mining would be
around 600,000 m3. The upper floor could be mined in a
similar area and at similar depths, but as the yield is lower
here a probable reserve of 120,000 m3 is expected.
Pan de Azu´car White
In the southern mining district white syenite crops out in
the hill Cerro Pan de Azu´car. Commercially it is known as
Pan de Azu´car White, but the quarry from where it was
mined is now inactive. This dimensional stone is charac-
terized by its light gray color and coarse-grained texture.
Even though this rock shows feldspar substitutions, the
absence of red stain is related to the lack of hematite in the
pores of the feldspar, probably due to the lack of hydro-
thermal influence.
The surface distribution of this deposit is unknown, due to
the steep slope of the hill and the lush vegetation that covers
the outcrops. A minimum area of 21,000 m2 is determined by
the extent of the inactive quarry and its surroundings. Con-
sidering a safe mining depth of 10 m, the probable reserves
would be about 210,000 m2. With a mining yield of 50 %, a
block production of 105,000 m3 is expected.
Guazubira´ Syenites: Salmon Red and Violeta Imperial
In the northern mining district the pink and light red colors
dominate (Salmon Red Syenite). The mining district has an
area of about 5 km2. Typical for this district are numerous
wide fault zones as indicated by the valleys. Former mining
in the center or nearby these zones produced only ballast
and rubble (aggregates).
The joint set distribution has been measured and analyzed
using the previously described methods of Palmstrøm (1982,
1996, 2001) and Sousa (2010). A deposit (quarry number 075)
for production of dimensional stone localized in a fault zone
has a median block size of just 0.4 m3. In another deposit
(quarry number 079) outside the fault zones a median block
volume of 4.89 m3 is calculated. Considering the tectonic
setting the potential mining area is reduced to almost 30 % of
the whole deposit: 1.5 km2. The waste material would be
considered a cost factor, but not as a decrease in the reserves.
For a realistic calculation of the deposit reserves, quarry 079
will be used as an example. Its dimensions are around
700 9 300 m, therefore an area of 210,000 m2. Using a con-
servative mining depth of 10 m and a mining yield of 60 %, the
reserves would be about 1,260,000 m3. The yield proposed is
based on the international experience and the model of a sec-
tion of quarry 075 using 3D Block Expert (Fig. 20).
A theoretical annual production capacity of 42,000 m3 is
calculated for a mining duration of 30 years in the quarry
079. Oscillations in the world market must be considered.
It is also necessary to evaluate the considered area using
economical geophysical methods to determine the distri-
bution and magnitude of the waste material to be removed.
Regarding the cost of mining an optimization can be
proposed using two different mining procedures. One pro-
cedure would be to use a greater surface area for mining at
lower depth, and the second the construction of numerous
mining levels to reach greater depths in a smaller area. The
influence of volcanic rocks occurring at the rim of the deposit
cannot be easily evaluated. It cannot be excluded that the
deposit is affected by dikes, veins, or sills.
The small deposit of Violeta Imperial Syenite is a special
case in regards to de´cor, where it shows smaller and narrow
alkali feldspars that partially exhibit an interstitial fabric and
a red-violet color. Its dimension is less than 10,000 m2.
Considering a mining depth of 10 m and a rate of 60 %, the
possible reserves of this deposit are calculated to be
60,000 m3. A production would be possible as a special
target and would only be economically viable in combination
with the main production of the pink-colored syenite.
Economic aspects of syenitoid deposits
The syenitoid group may also have a good position on the
international market, since the range in de´cor for these
1430 Environ Earth Sci (2013) 69:1397–1438
123
rocks is quite uncommon and very pleasing to the eye. As
the petrophysical properties are not a limiting factor for
their commercialization, these rocks could be sold at prices
between 400 and 500 US$/m3 FOB. An annual production
of 24,000 m3 is proposed for the Artigas Pearl Syenite. The
attainable average market price of 500 US$/m3 would
account for 12 million US$ per year.
For the Pan de Azu´car Syenite an annual production of
3,500 m3 can be calculated. At market prices for white
granitic stones of 200 US$/m3 FOB, the annual income of
its mining would be 700,000 US$.
Due to its color and de´cor the Salmon Red Syenite could
be easily placed on the market in the category of red gra-
nitic dimensional stones. Its fabric makes it particularly
Fig. 22 Damages. a Moskart Granite broken floor cladding due to the
low flexural strength of this rock; b Moskart Granite outdoor fac¸ade
cladding with calcite precipitated in the microcracks, probably by the
remobilization of the cement material; c Artigas Pearl Syenite outdoor
cladding; precipitation of calcite from the cement in the joint between
two slabs; d Artigas Pearl outdoor monument cladding with a crack
presumably posterior to the placement. Note the microcracks and
little pores homogeneously distributed in the entire polished slab; e La
Paz Granite urban monument affected by biomechanical deterioration
due to the growth of a tree; and f the same monument shows
anthropogenic deterioration (graffiti)
Environ Earth Sci (2013) 69:1397–1438 1431
123
interesting, because it gives the impression of being opti-
cally homogeneous. Taking an average price level of
500 US$ per m3 and an average rate of 50 % of exportable
industrial blocks would result in an annual amount of
10.5 million US$.
For the Violeta Imperial deposit the annual production
of 2,000 m3 can be calculated. The prices for this kind of
colored granitic stones average 450 US$/m3 FOB, allowing
an annual value of 900,000 US$.
Final remarks and conclusions
The Uruguayan commercial granites can be classified by
their petrography and geochemistry into mafic rocks,
granitoids, and syenitoids. For each of these groups a
characterization has been carried out considering their
color and de´cor, their petrophysical properties and the
chance of their economically mining (deposit).
The only mafic rock deposits successfully mined in Uru-
guay today as dimensional stone are the dolerites. Even
though there are two distinct geochemical and petrographical
groups (A and B, with high and low TiO2 contents, respec-
tively), the de´cor and the petrophysical behavior is similar for
both groups (samples U11O and U66). The exception to this
assessment is the absence of the high quality black de´cor in
Group B, since Absolute Black Dolerite (U11A) has only
been found in the dikes of Group A (Morales Demarco et al.
2011). The high densities and especially the very low
porosities and pore-related properties (e.g., water absorption,
water vapor diffusion) of these rocks make them high quality
granitic dimensional stones. They occupy a very favorable
position in regards to their diverse applications; since they
are very resistant to weathering and freezing and present no
deterioration risks (See Table 7). The near-isotropic char-
acter of their petromechanical properties make possible their
use as constructive elements subjected to high uniaxial
applied loads, independently of the orientation of these ele-
ments (e.g., fac¸ades, support masts). Similarly, the thermal
expansion is also near isotropic making possible the appli-
cation of these rocks as elements that require an extreme low
anisotropy (e.g., precision tables). Uruguayan dolerites,
therefore, can be used as constructive elements in all indoor
and outdoor applications and can occupy a relevant position
on the international market.
The Uruguayan black commercial granites are compa-
rable with several worldwide known dimensional stones in
regards to de´cor and petrophysical properties (Table 6).
The Absolute Black Dolerite can be compared with the
Shanxi Black. They are similar in de´cor but the Uruguayan
variety is slightly darker than Shanxi Black. In respect to
their petrophysical properties they are very similar. Mod-
erate Black Dolerite is comparable to the Impala Dark. The
Uruguayan dolerite has a finer grain size and higher com-
pressive strength but a lower flexural strength.
The fine-grained gray granite varieties Cerro A´spero and
Garzo´n Gray are similar in de´cor to the Padang Light
Granite (G633/G3533) (China) and Kuro Gray (Finland).
The petrophysical properties of the Uruguayan fine-grained
gray granites are between those of these two internationally
known granites (Table 7). Cerro A´spero Granite show
higher UCS values as Padang Light, as well as slightly
lower water absorption values. Oxidation of biotite under
normal weathering conditions has an adverse effect on the
color (by the staining of surrounding minerals) and in the
rock stability. In the Cerro A´spero Granite no accumulation
of iron hydroxide occurs due to the extremely low capillary
water uptake. This characteristic places this granite in a
better market position in comparison to the Padang Light,
which is one of the most commercialized light gray and
fine-grained granites. In its porosity and pore-related pe-
trophysical properties, the Cerro A´spero Granite is com-
parable to the Kuro Gray Granite from Finland.
The Cerro A´spero Granite deposit can provide material
for the dimensional stone industry as well as directly for
the building sector. The large blocks can be cut with a gang
saw blade for the production of polished slabs for wall
cladding. The small- and medium-sized blocks provide
material for flagstone and other products using normal saw
blades or by simple handwork. For an increase of the
competitiveness of the Cerro A´spero Granite it would be
important to further analyze this commercial granite and
compare it in detail with the world leading fine-grained
gray granites. Also a promotion of this granite in interna-
tional fairs and specialized literature would improve its
position in the international market.
The color and de´cor of the Cufre´ Gray Blue Granite is not
particularly interesting for the international market, but the
rock can be commercialized at local and regional markets.
Oxidation of the mafic enclaves and biotite clots with the
development of orange-colored limonitic spots has been
observed in the quarry. This phenomenon has not been seen
in polished slabs used for outdoor fac¸ades (e.g., Torre de
Antel; See Fig. 1a). The stone has a very high content of
quartz (40 %), and thus a good durability as a polished
surface. Due to the presence of a foliation, mafic enclaves,
and biotite clots, the de´cor of this rock will vary within a
block. The entire block needs to be cut to classify the fin-
ished product according to the de´cor (i.e., the presence or
the absence of heterogeneities that will determine the
products quality). Taking into consideration these facts and
also the low porosity and low capillary water absorption, the
Cufre´ Gray Blue can substitute for high quality imported
stones for indoor and outdoor floor and fac¸ade cladding.
Maldonado Gray Granite is comparable in de´cor and
petrophysical properties with the Italian Serizzo Antigorio
1432 Environ Earth Sci (2013) 69:1397–1438
123
gneiss. The Uruguayan granite shows higher strength val-
ues and lower water uptake. An optimization of the mining
of this commercial granite could eventually lead to a higher
production of larger blocks, which could place this granite
on the international market.
Moskart or Soca Granite has similarities in de´cor (the
greenish-gray color, the very coarse-grained texture, and
the occasional iridescent feldspar) with the Flash Blue
Granite from India and the Verde Butterfly from Brazil.
The compressive strength is higher in the Uruguayan
Granite and its flexural strength and water uptake values
are in between both international granites. These charac-
teristics make the Uruguayan granite a good competitor
against the Indian and Brazilian granites. Due to its very
coarse-grained texture and the presence of microcracks, the
best method for mining this dimensional stone has proven
to be the diamond wire saw. These characteristics, together
with the relatively low values of its petrophysical proper-
ties, make a previous treatment of the slabs necessary to
ensure their stability (e.g., chemical treatment to prevent
water infiltration). Examples of this assessment are illus-
trated in Fig. 22a, where a step of a stone staircase broke
due to the low flexural resistance of this stone. In Fig. 22b
an outdoor fac¸ade cladding with precipitated calcite in the
microcracks is shown, probably due to the remobilization
of the cement material. Despite these application problems
the Moskart Granite was commercialized on the interna-
tional market during the last decade of the 20th century.
The de´cor of the Uruguayan colored syenitoids is so
unique that there are no rocks to compare them with. The
red granites, on the other hand, can be compared with
numerous rocks. The equigranular facies of the La Paz
Granite can be compared to the Rosa Santa Eulalia, a
granite from Portugal; the porphyritic facies with the
Rosavel Granite from Spain and the Guazunambı´ Granite
with the Marrom Gaucho Syenite from Brazil. Their
petrophysical properties are comparable to those of the
international granites, but the compressive strength is
clearly higher than the Rosavel quartz syenite.
The appearance of numerous open pores in polished
slabs of the Artigas Pearl Syenite, as well as in the deposit,
is a factor to consider for its application. A coating will be
necessary before its utilization as a working table or high
quality flooring slabs. The use as a funerary monument is
limited due to the high requirements in this sector. Basi-
cally, the application of this rock in the heavy duty sector
has to be carefully considered, since it has relatively low
petrophysical values in comparison to those of the syenite-
monzonite groups of Mosch (2008).
The Salmon Red Syenite is in demand on the interna-
tional market because of its color and de´cor, where it can
be used in combination with rough surfaces and more dark
red rocks for indoor and outdoor flooring slabs. Comparing
the petrophysical values with the syenite-monzonite group
investigated by Mosch (2008), this syenite has a very good
position, allowing its use in sophisticated construction
locations such as fac¸ades and countertops. Pore formation
can be problematic in this dimensional stone, so that spe-
cial attention has to be taken in the posterior industrial
process (cutting and polishing). No negative aspects are
known in regards to the weathering behavior.
The Pan de Azu´car White Syenite is comparable in
de´cor to the Bianco Sardo from Italy. This rock could be
interesting for the international market, as long as it can be
extracted in industrially utilizable blocks. It could occupy a
segment in the market, because the color ‘‘white’’ in hard
rocks is not very common. In this sector, aplites and
gneisses are offered, which very often show problems with
posterior alteration accompanied by the formation of visi-
ble limonite.
Uruguayan syenitoids have been in use for several
decades in the harbor facilities of Argentina and Uruguay.
They have a high salinity resistance as well as a high
resistance against applied loads (wash of the waves). This
allows the application of small blocks on the international
market for sectors that need high chemical resistant
materials. With this special utilization, the deposits would
be more competitive and have a better mining yield, since
the high proportion of waste material is composed of small
blocks. The waste material could be minimized by the
production of aggregates parallel to the production of large
blocks.
In summary, the color and de´cor, together with the
petrophysical properties of the Uruguayan commercial
granites places them in a very good position to compete
with internationally known granitic stones. The dolerites
are particularly interesting because they show excellent
petrophysical properties that allow their use in all types of
building applications. Their color and de´cor make the
commercialization of these rocks independent of the
changing fashion demands of the market.
Acknowledgments We would like to thank Dipl.-Ing. Peter
Machner, Matthias Gehrke, and Dr. Alexander Wetzel for their help
with the abrasion measurements at the AMPA Laboratory (Amtliche
Materialpru¨fanstalt fu¨r das Bauwesen) of the University of Kassel.
Further thanks go to Dr. Rudolf Naumann for the geochemical
measurements at the GFZ (GeoForschungsZentrum) in Potsdam; and
Janousˇek V, Farrow CM, Erban V, and Sˇmı´d J for the use of the
program GCDKit (GeoChemical Data ToolKIT) for plotting the
geochemical data. In Uruguay our thanks go to Ing. Jorge Spoturno,
Ing. Haroldo Albanell, Dipl. Geol. Silvana Martinez, Dr. Jorge Bossi,
Dr. Leda Sa´nchez Bettucci, and MsC. Juan Ledesma for their com-
ments, suggestions, and support. We also would like to thank the
companies Black Stone S.A., Comercio Exterior S.A., Pimafox S.A.,
Vodelı´n S.A., and Rufo Hnos S.A. Special thanks also go to the
students, friends, and family in Uruguay and Germany for their help
and support. We are very grateful to Dr. Klaus Wemmer not only for
the help in the field, but also for his support in scientific and
Environ Earth Sci (2013) 69:1397–1438 1433
123
existential matters. We also thank Christian Gross for his help with
the English corrections. M. Morales Demarco is grateful to the DAAD
for the long-term fellowship (A/07/98548).
Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution License which permits any use, dis-
tribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original
author(s) and the source are credited.
Appendix
See Appendix Tables 8, 9, 10 and 11.
Table 8 Petrophysical properties: density, porosity, water absorption (W.A.)
Rock/test ID Bulk
density
(g/cm3)
Matrix
density
(g/cm3)
Porosity
(%)
Average
pore radii
(lm)
Most abundant
pore radii (lm)
Capillary
W.A.
(kg/m2h0.5)
Forced
W.A.
(wt%)
Unforced
W.A.
(wt%)
S value
Absolute Black Dolerite U11A 2.99 2.99 0.03 0.097 0.013 0.04 0.01 0.01 0.96
Moderate Black Dolerite U11O 3.02 3.02 0.06 0.064 0.021 0.09 0.02 0.02 0.97
Oriental (Pimafox) Dolerite U66 2.97 2.98 0.12 0.209 0.084 0.13 0.04 0.03 0.87
Arapey Black Basalt U49 2.94 2.96 0.98 0.032 0.021 0.16 0.33 0.28 0.86
Maldonado Gray Granite U2 2.64 2.64 0.48 0.051 0.053 0.10 0.18 0.17 0.91
Chamanga´ Gray Granite U4 2.69 2.69 0.27 0.077 0.021 0.10 0.10 0.07 0.70
Cuchilla del Perdido Granite U53 2.72 2.73 0.31 0.070 0.084 0.11 0.12 0.09 0.80
Cerro A´spero Gray Granite U70 2.65 2.67 0.80 0.090 0.133 0.11 0.30 0.27 0.89
Moskart Granite U7 2.66 2.67 0.58 0.070 0.008 0.07 0.22 0.19 0.89
Salmon Red Syenite U15 2.61 2.64 0.86 0.042 0.084 0.82 0.33 0.30 0.91
Artigas Peart Syenite U46 2.64 2.68 1.15 0.077 0.008 0.19 0.44 0.40 0.93
Vioieta Imperial Syenite U47 2.62 2.66 1.34 0.057 0.335 0.22 0.51 0.43 0.83
Table 9 Petrophysical properties: thermal expansion, water vapor diffusion, and ultrasound
Rock/test direction ID Thermal expansion (10-6 K-1) Water vapor diffusion Ultrasound (km/s)
x y z Average
value
Anisotropy
(%)
x y z x y z
Absolute Black Dolerite U11A 6.66 6.79 6.68 6.71 2 8,487 6,069 5,583 5.84 5.72 5.92
Moderate Black Dolerite U11O 6.53 6.55 6.87 6.65 5 5,344 5,473 5,599 6.41 6.49 6.34
Oriental (Pimafox) Dolerite U66 5.67 5.87 5.80 5.78 2 120 809 1,130 5.84 5.58 5.61
Arapey Black Basalt U49 6.21 6.03 5.75 6.00 7 -355 -781 -1,251 5.73 5.88 5.41
Maldonado Gray Granite U2 7.3 7.76 8.04 7.70 9 83 228 269 5.15 5.73 5.31
Chamanga´ Gray Granite U4 8.35 7.93 7.30 7.86 13 1,232 851 1,099 5.73 5.22 5.40
Cuchilla del Perdido Granite U53 7.39 7.88 8.28 7.85 11 528 456 459 5.85 5.62 5.57
Cerro A´spero Gray Granite U70 6.94 6.74 6.50 6.73 6 N.d. N.d. N.d. 4.27 4.08 3.38
Moskart Granite U7 7.78 9.47 8.46 8.57 18 374 526 358 5.83 5.57 5.46
Salmon Red Syenite U15 6.27 6.34 6.96 6.52 10 1,508 1,182 1,046 5.15 5.18 5.03
Artigas Pearl Syenite U46 5.74 6.79 6.18 6.23 15 442 1,017 588 5.08 5.03 4.88
Violeta Imperial Syenite U47 6.45 6.45 7.16 6.69 10 861 525 797 5.59 5.45 5.27
1434 Environ Earth Sci (2013) 69:1397–1438
123
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Environ Earth Sci (2013) 69:1397–1438 1435
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