Clim. Past, 9, 749–766, 2013
www.clim-past.net/9/749/2013/
doi:10.5194/cp-9-749-2013
© Author(s) 2013. CC Attribution 3.0 License.
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Direct linking of Greenland and Antarctic ice cores at the Toba
eruption (74 ka BP)
A. Svensson1, M. Bigler2, T. Blunier1, H. B. Clausen1, D. Dahl-Jensen1, H. Fischer2, S. Fujita3, K. Goto-Azuma3,
S. J. Johnsen1, K. Kawamura3, S. Kipfstuhl4, M. Kohno5, F. Parrenin6,7, T. Popp1, S. O. Rasmussen1, J. Schwander2,
I. Seierstad1, M. Severi8, J. P. Steffensen1, R. Udisti8, R. Uemura9, P. Vallelonga1, B. M. Vinther1, A. Wegner4,
F. Wilhelms4, and M. Winstrup1
1Centre for Ice and Climate, Niels Bohr Institute, University of Copenhagen, Denmark
2Climate and Environmental Physics, Physics Institute & Oeschger Centre for Climate Change Research, University of Bern,
Bern, Switzerland
3National Institute of Polar Research, Tachikawa, Tokyo, Japan
4Stiftung Alfred-Wegener-Institut fu¨r Polar- und Meeresforschung, Bremerhaven, Germany
5Geoscience Center, University of Go¨ttingen, Go¨ttingen, Germany
6Laboratoire Chrono-environnement, Besancon, France
7Laboratoire de Glaciologie et Geophysique de l’Environnement, Grenoble, France
8Department of Chemistry “Ugo Schiff”, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
9Department of Chemistry, Biology, and Marine Science, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, Japan
Correspondence to: A. Svensson (as@gfy.ku.dk)
Received: 24 September 2012 – Published in Clim. Past Discuss.: 5 November 2012
Revised: 6 March 2013 – Accepted: 6 March 2013 – Published: 19 March 2013
Abstract. The Toba eruption that occurred some 74 ka ago in
Sumatra, Indonesia, is among the largest volcanic events on
Earth over the last 2 million years. Tephra from this eruption
has been spread over vast areas in Asia, where it constitutes
a major time marker close to the Marine Isotope Stage 4/5
boundary. As yet, no tephra associated with Toba has been
identified in Greenland or Antarctic ice cores. Based on new
accurate dating of Toba tephra and on accurately dated Euro-
pean stalagmites, the Toba event is known to occur between
the onsets of Greenland interstadials (GI) 19 and 20. Fur-
thermore, the existing linking of Greenland and Antarctic ice
cores by gas records and by the bipolar seesaw hypothesis
suggests that the Antarctic counterpart is situated between
Antarctic Isotope Maxima (AIM) 19 and 20.
In this work we suggest a direct synchronization of Green-
land (NGRIP) and Antarctic (EDML) ice cores at the Toba
eruption based on matching of a pattern of bipolar vol-
canic spikes. Annual layer counting between volcanic spikes
in both cores allows for a unique match. We first demon-
strate this bipolar matching technique at the already synchro-
nized Laschamp geomagnetic excursion (41 ka BP) before
we apply it to the suggested Toba interval. The Toba syn-
chronization pattern covers some 2000 yr in GI-20 and AIM-
19/20 and includes nine acidity peaks th t are recognized in
both ice cores.
The suggested bipolar Toba synchronization has decadal
precision. It thus allows a determination of the exact phas-
ing of inter-hemispheric climate in a time interval of poorly
constrained ice core records, and it allows for a discussion
of the climatic impact of the Toba eruption in a global per-
spective. The bipolar linking gives no support for a long-term
global cooling caused by the Toba eruption as Antarctica ex-
periences a major warming shortly after the event. Further-
more, our bipolar match provides a way to place palaeo-
environmental records other than ice cores into a precise cli-
matic context.
Published by Copernicus Publications on behalf of the European Geosciences Union.
750 A. Svensson et al.: Direct linking of Greenland and Antarctic ice cores
1 Introduction
1.1 Linking of Greenland and Antarctic ice core records
Synchronization of palaeo-environmental records in ice
cores from Greenland and Antarctica has long been a topic
of great interest. In Greenland, glacial climate is associated
with a number of abrupt climate shifts, Dansgaard–Oeschger
(DO) events (Dansgaard et al., 1993), whereas Antarctica
experienced a number of more gradual climate variations,
Antarctic Isotope Maxima (AIM) (EPICA community mem-
bers, 2006). A precise linking of ice cores from the two hemi-
spheres is essential to determine the exact sequence of events
and to reveal the dynamics related to these climate changes.
Furthermore, because many palaeo-environmental archives
can be linked to polar ice cores (Blockley et al., 2012), a
north–south synchronization of polar ice cores provides a
way to place those archives into a global climatic context.
A number of different approaches have been taken to
synchronize ice cores from the two hemispheres. Bender
et al. (1994) used the global signal of oxygen isotopes of
air trapped in the Greenland GISP2 and the Antarctic Vos-
tok ice cores to link the two climatic records during the
last glacial period. Blunier et al. (1998) and later Blunier
and Brook (2001) applied the atmospheric methane con-
centration records extracted from the Greenland GISP2 and
GRIP cores and the Antarctic Vostok and Byrd cores to
construct a relative bipolar ice core chronology for the last
90 ka. Methane records were also applied to link the Green-
land NGRIP (North Greenland Ice Core Project members,
2004) and the Antarctic EDML (EPICA community mem-
bers, 2006) ice cores for the last 50 ka and to show that indeed
all Greenland DO events have Antarctic AIM counterparts.
More recently, Capron et al. (2010b) applied both methane
concentration and oxygen isotopes of air to link NGRIP and
EDML for the time period 80–123 ka BP. Because air bub-
bles are incorporated in ice cores at the depth where firn is
compacted to ice, the age of the ice and the age of the gas
record in an ice core are offset by the so-called “delta age”
(Schwander et al., 1993; Buizert et al., 2012). This age offset
depends primarily on accumulation, firn thickness, tempera-
ture, and possibly the impurity content of the ice (Goujon et
al., 2003; Ho¨rhold et al., 2012). Therefore, uncertainties of
the order of 100–1000 yr remain in synchronizing ice core
climatic signals using gas-based matching (Blunier et al.,
2007).
A different approach of inter-hemispheric ice core linking
was taken by Raisbeck et al. (2007), who applied the global
signal of cosmogenic 10Be in ice cores to match the Green-
land GRIP and the Antarctic EDC ice cores at the Laschamp
geomagnetic excursion that occurred about 41 ka ago. The
10Be approach does not involve a delta age as it directly
links horizons in the ice phase of the cores in question. At
the Laschamp excursion, which is characterized by a char-
acteristic double spike in 10Be records, the Greenland and
Antarctic ice cores could be linked with decadal precision.
The Laschamp excursion also provides a constraint for the
delta age estimation (Loulergue et al., 2007).
Both gas and 10Be linking was applied to tie the Antarctic
EDML (Ruth et al., 2007) and EDC (Parrenin et al., 2007) ice
cores to the Greenland NGRIP ice core, whereby the unified
Greenland Ice Core Chronology 2005 (GICC05) (Rasmussen
et al., 2006; Andersen et al., 2006) could be transferred to
Antarctica back to 41 ka BP. This approach was refined and
extended by Lemieux-Dudon et al. (2010), who applied an
inverse model to combine the ice core time scales for NGRIP,
EDC, EDML, and Vostok and the stratigraphic constraints
among those cores to obtain a unified and consistent set of
age scales for both ice and gas records. Recently, this ap-
proach has been further extended for construction of the
Antarctic Ice Core Chronology 2012 (AICC2012) (Bazin et
al., 2012; Veres et al., 2012).
The linking of Greenland and Antarctic ice cores paved
the way for the bipolar seesaw hypothesis, which suggests
a mechanism to link the millennium scale climate vari-
ability of the last glacial period between the hemispheres
(Broecker, 1998; Stocker and Johnsen, 2003). The bipolar
seesaw hypothesis suggests that the Greenland DO events
and the Antarctic AIM events are linked through the Atlantic
Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) implying that
a warming in Greenland causes a cooling in Antarctica and
vice versa. Blunier et al. (1998) and consecutive publications
show that the picture is more complex: a rapid warming in
Greenland ends a slow warming in Antarctica, which con-
ceptually can be explained by adding a heat buffer in the
Southern Ocean (Stocker and Johnsen, 2003). The EDML
ice core is thought to have a strong expression of the bipolar
seesaw due to its location in the Atlantic sector of Antarctica.
Within the last 50 ka the Greenland–Antarctic ice core link-
ing is well established, and the bipolar seesaw hypothesis ap-
pears to be confirmed by the relative timing of climate events
(EPICA community members, 2006; Lemieux-Dudon et al.,
2010; Stenni et al., 2010; Pedro et al., 2011). Beyond this
time window, the relative timing of N–S records is somewhat
uncertain, but the bipolar seesaw hypothesis appears to be
active throughout the last glacial period (Blunier and Brook,
2001; Jouzel et al., 2007). During the earliest part of the last
glacial the bipolar seesaw may have had somewhat different
characteristics (Capron et al., 2010a), but in this period the
ice core chronologies are still being adjusted (Vallelonga et
al., 2012).
Recently, the Greenland NGRIP and Antarctic EDML ice
cores have been linked over the last 17 ka through layer
counting and matching of bipolar volcanic markers identi-
fied in both ice cores (Vinther et al., 2012); the two ice cores
were dated independently by annual layer counting, NGRIP
using the existing GICC05 chronology (Vinther et al., 2006;
Rasmussen et al., 2006) and EDML by application of a multi-
parameter high-resolution continuous flow analysis (CFA)
dataset. The ice cores were then synchronized using major
Clim. Past, 9, 749–766, 2013 www.clim-past.net/9/749/2013/
A. Svensson et al.: Direct linking of Greenland and Antarctic ice cores 751
volcanic events that are unambiguously identified in both
cores and thereby allowing for a highly precise transfer of
the Greenland GICC05 timescale to EDML ice core (Vinther
et al., 2012).
1.2 The Toba eruption occurring around 74 ka BP
The Toba caldera is located close to the equator in north-
ern Sumatra, Indonesia. Over the last 1.3 million years, the
volcano has had several very large eruptions of which the
most recent that occurred some 74 ka ago is considered one
of the largest volcanic eruptions of the Quaternary (Chesner,
2012). Tephra from this eruption, known as Younger Toba
Tuff (YTT), is spread over a vast geographical region in
south-eastern Asia on both sides of the equator and has been
identified at many locations in the surrounding oceans and
continents (e.g. Williams, 2012). The YTT geochemistry is
well characterized (Westaway et al., 2011), and age estimates
of the YTT are provided in several studies by application
of various techniques (e.g. Chesner et al., 1991). Most re-
cently, well-characterized Toba tephra sampled in Malaysia
has been precisely dated by Ar-Ar to 73.88± 0.32 ka BP (1-
sigma) by Storey et al. (2012), and material from both Suma-
tra and sites in India were dated by Ar-Ar to 75.0± 0.9 ka
(1-sigma) by Mark et al. (2013).
So far, tephra originating from Toba has not been identified
in Greenland (Abbott et al., 2012) or in Antarctic ice cores.
Already in 1996, however, Zielinski et al. (1996) suggested
that the Toba eruption could be associated with a major sul-
phuric spike identified in the Greenland GISP2 ice core at the
transition from Greenland Interstadial 20 (GI-20) to Green-
land Stadial 20 (GS-20) occurring close to the Marine Iso-
tope Stage 4/5 (MIS 4/5) boundary. A few years later, Toba
tephra was identified in marine sediment cores from the Ara-
bian Sea, which show a glacial climate variability compara-
ble to that of the Greenland ice cores (Schulz et al., 1998).
The position of the tephra in those and several other marine
records seems to confirm the timing of the Toba eruption at
the GI-20 to GS-20 transition (Schulz et al., 2002; Kudrass
et al., 2001; Huang et al., 2001).
Being a much larger eruption than any historical erup-
tion and probably being among the largest volcanic erup-
tions of the Quaternary, the environmental and climatic ef-
fects of the 74 ka BP Toba eruption are topics of great interest
and debate. The suggested climatic impact of the Toba erup-
tion ranges from very little impact (Haslam and Petraglia,
2010; Oppenheimer, 2002; Chesner and Luhr, 2010) to se-
vere impact of “volcanic winter and accelerated glaciation”
(Rampino and Self, 1992). The effect of the eruption on re-
gional vegetation, humans, and mammals is discussed in a
number of papers (e.g. Petraglia et al., 2007; Louys, 2012)
and the topic is still controversial (Williams, 2012). For ar-
chaeology the Toba eruption is of particular interest because
it may have occurred close to the time when Homo sapiens
migrated out of Africa and into Eurasia (Rasmussen et al.,
2011) and it is speculated that the eruption may have caused
a “human population bottleneck” (Ambrose, 1998). Beyond
the climate impacts of the Toba eruption, the event provides
an important, distinct and widespread time marker beyond
the 14C dating range (e.g. Lane et al., 2011).
1.3 Outline of the present study
Inter-hemispheric volcanic linking of ice cores is quite dif-
ferent from volcanic ice core synchronization within Green-
land or within Antarctica. In Greenland the volcanic record
is dominated by Northern Hemisphere eruptions and ma-
jor eruptions are generally present in all deep ice cores de-
spite a large spatial variability of volcanic deposition on the
ice sheet (Clausen et al., 1997; Robock, 2000). Greenland
ice cores have been synchronized in the last glacial period
at annual-to-decadal precision by major volcanic reference
horizons (Rasmussen et al., 2008). Due to its large geo-
graphical extent, the spatial variability of volcanic deposi-
tion is even more pronounced in Antarctica, but ice cores
can still be linked accurately by volcanic tie points (Severi
et al., 2007; Parrenin et al., 2012). For globally dispersed
volcanic events, the magnitude of Greenland and Antarctic
acidic signatures will generally not be comparable as they
depend strongly on several factors, such as latitude of the
eruption, atmospheric circulation, and the amount of sul-
phur injected into the stratosphere (Zielinski, 2000; Gao et
al., 2008). Therefore, it is not straightforward to establish a
Greenland–Antarctic volcanic ice core synchronization from
acidity spikes alone and, in general, additional evidence is
needed in order to establish a bipolar volcanic link (Bay et
al., 2006).
In this study we take a similar approach to that applied for
the last 17 ka by Vinther et al. (2012) of matching Green-
land and Antarctic ice cores by annual layer counting and
linking of bipolar volcanic reference horizons. The indepen-
dent dating of Greenland and Antarctic ice cores by annual
layer counting permits matching of sequences of globally
dispersed volcanic markers. To demonstrate the feasibility of
this technique in the last glacial period, we first establish a
volcanic link of the Greenland NGRIP and Antarctic EDML
ice cores at the Laschamp geomagnetic excursion (41 ka BP),
where the N–S linking is already well constrained. In this pe-
riod we apply the existing layer-counted GICC05 chronology
for NGRIP and count annual layers in EDML, using a high-
resolution impurity dataset. We then extend this approach to
a 2000 yr period at around 74 ka BP where prominent acidity
spikes that are most likely related to the Toba eruption can be
identified in both NGRIP and EDML. Annual layer counting
is performed independently in NGRIP and EDML, and based
on the relative chronologies an inter-hemispheric match is
obtained by identifying a sequence of volcanic markers that
are recognized in both cores. Based on published and new
tie points we then expand the N–S Toba link to other major
Greenland and Antarctic ice cores.
www.clim-past.net/9/749/2013/ Clim. Past, 9, 749–766, 2013
752 A. Svensson et al.: Direct linking of Greenland and Antarctic ice cores
2 Datasets and methods
For annual layer counting in NGRIP, we apply the high-
resolution CFA impurity dataset (Bigler, 2004) that provides
continuous records of among others sulphate, sodium, cal-
cium, electrolytic conductivity of melt water (“conductiv-
ity”), and the amount of insoluble dust particles (“dust”)
(Ruth et al., 2003) together with the visual stratigraphy
(VS) greyscale profile (Svensson et al., 2005). Those records
were previously applied to construct the glacial part of
the GICC05 time scale (Rasmussen et al., 2006; Svens-
son et al., 2008). For the EDML layer counting we ap-
ply a CFA high-resolution dataset that provides continuous
records of sodium, ammonium, calcium, dust, and conduc-
tivity (Kaufmann et al., 2010) as well as the VS greyscale
profile (Faria et al., 2010). This CFA dataset was applied
to establish the layer-counted EDML time scale for the last
17 ka (Vinther et al., 2012). All of the records are available
in 1 mm depth resolution, but due to varying degrees of pro-
file smoothing in the firn and ice and during ice core analysis,
the minimum resolvable features differ from record to record.
The CFA records can typically resolve annual layers down to
a few cm thickness, whereas the VS greyscale profiles can
easily resolve annual layers of 1 cm thickness.
To identify volcanic markers in NGRIP, we apply the CFA
sulphate and conductivity records, the electrical conductivity
measurement (ECM) (Dahl-Jensen et al., 2002), and the di-
electric profile (DEP) (Wilhelms et al., 1998). NGRIP ECM
and DEP do not usually resolve annual layers in the glacial
period, but they are good indicators of volcanic events, in
particular during interstadials. For EDML volcanic markers
were identified in the CFA conductivity, in DEP and ECM,
and in sulphate, all of which are robust indicators of volcanic
events that have previously been applied to match Antarctic
ice core records (Udisti et al., 2004; Parrenin et al., 2012;
Severi et al., 2007).
3 Bipolar synchronization at the Laschamp
geomagnetic excursion
At the Laschamp geomagnetic excursion that occurred close
to 41 ka BP (Singer et al., 2009), a bipolar synchronization
is already established based on two 10Be spikes identified
in both Greenland and Antarctic ice cores (Raisbeck et al.,
2007; Yiou et al., 1997). The two 10Be peaks essentially
bracket the Greenland GI-10 event that is associated with
the Antarctic AIM-9 and -10 events. In NGRIP the youngest
of the 10Be peaks occurs very close to the onset of GS-10
and the oldest peak is located towards the end of GS-11. In
NGRIP the two peaks are separated by some 17.5 m, corre-
sponding to an interval of about 850 yr duration. The preci-
sion of the 10Be NGRIP-EDML synchronization is decadal
to centennial (Raisbeck et al., 2007; Loulergue et al., 2007).
The Laschamp section of the NGRIP ice core has been
dated by annual layer counting for the GICC05 chronology
which we adapt here (Andersen et al., 2006). We date the
Laschamp section of the EDML ice core by layer counting
in the CFA and VS datasets following the same principles
as applied for NGRIP. We identify “certain” and “uncertain”
annual layers that are counted as 1.0± 0.0 and 0.5± 0.5 yr,
respectively. The accumulated uncertainty of the uncertain
annual layers provides the maximum counting error estimate
of the dating following the approach outlined in Andersen et
al. (2006). The EDML mean annual layer thickness for the
Laschamp section of around two cm is well resolved in the
VS record, fairly well resolved in dust, calcium, and ammo-
nium, but only partially resolved in conductivity (Fig. 1). The
resulting relative time scale is presented in Table 1.
Figure 2 shows the 10Be matched section of the two ice
cores around the Laschamp event with indication of the two
10Be peaks. In NGRIP the impurity load is strongly climate
dependent (as determined by δ18O) with generally higher im-
purity loading during the cold phases/stadials as the well-
known Greenland pattern (Mayewski et al., 1997; Fischer et
al., 2007b). During interstadials volcanic spikes are usually
quite distinct and easy to identify, whereas in the coldest peri-
ods the volcanic spikes are often difficult to separate from the
generally higher and noisier background level (Fig. 2). We
note that because prominent sulphate peaks normally domi-
nate the conductivity of the ice, the sulphate and the conduc-
tivity records are both robust indicators of major volcanic
events.
Between the two Laschamp 10Be peaks, the NGRIP
records show evidence of 3–5 larger and several smaller vol-
canic events, whereas EDML has expression of 3–4 signif-
icant volcanic markers and some smaller events. Based on
the 10Be matching and on the annual layer counting of the
two ice core sections, we suggest that three of those events
(referred to as L1–L3) are bipolar and can be applied to syn-
chronize the ice cores (Fig. 2 and Table 1). Because we have
no tephra evidence, there is no way to prove that the sug-
gested match points are truly global markers, and potentially
one or more of them are regional events that are just lining
up by coincidence. Considering, however, the few volcanic
events over the 850 yr period of interest and the tight cor-
respondence in the relative timing of events, a coincidental
overlap of all of the events appears unlikely. The larger dis-
crepancy in number of years between match points 10Be-
1 and L1 between the two cores can be readily attributed
to the 30–50 yr uncertainty of the north–south 10Be linking
(Raisbeck et al., 2007).
4 Bipolar volcanic linking at the 74 ka BP Toba
eruption
Because no Toba tephra has been identified in polar ice cores,
we do not have any proven knowledge of the location of the
Clim. Past, 9, 749–766, 2013 www.clim-past.net/9/749/2013/
A. Svensson et al.: Direct linking of Greenland and Antarctic ice cores 753
Fig. 1. Example of layer counting in the EDML ice core at the Laschamp event. Annual layers are indicated by grey vertical bars. Solid and
dashed vertical bars indicate “certain” and “uncertain” layers, respectively.
Table 1. Depth, and absolute and relative age of Laschamp and Toba match points in the NGRIP and EDML ice cores based on the
GICC05modelext time scale (Wolff et al., 2010) and on layer counting (this work). “b2k” refers to “before year 2000 AD”.
Ice core depth (m) GICC05modelext age (yr b2k) Layer counting (yr)
Match point NGRIP EDML Absolute Relative NGRIP EDML
Laschamp event interval
10Be-1 2110.10 1368.40 40 823 0 0± 0 0± 0
L1 2111.58 1369.54 40 912 89 89± 3 68± 4
L2 2115.41 1372.73 41 109 285 285± 8 262± 13
L3 2118.62 1375.15 41 249 425 425± 11 404± 24
10Be-2 2127.50 1383.30 41 690 867 867± 36 854± 54
Toba event interval
T1 2547.22 1866.62 74 057 0 0± 0 0± 0
T2 2547.97 1867.56 74 156 99 87± 6 84± 7
T3 2550.06 1869.51 74 358 301 276± 18 264± 21
T4 2551.45 1870.93 74 484 427 395± 24 388± 27
T5 2558.43 1877.57 75 039 982 947± 53 953± 66
T6 2558.76 1877.85 75 064 1007 972± 56 978± 68
T7 2564.35 1882.96 75 479 1422 1386± 80 1384± 93
T8 2564.70 1883.31 75 505 1448 1413± 82 1411± 93
T9 2572.61 1890.58 76 037 1980 1951± 114 1959± 128
Toba volcanic signature neither in Greenland nor in Antarc-
tic ice cores. The approach taken here to establish the bipolar
Toba link takes two steps: first, we provide an estimate for
the position of the Toba eruption in the NGRIP and EDML
ice cores based on recent independent dating of the event and
on the bipolar seesaw hypothesis. Second, we perform layer
counting in a 2000-yr-long section of the two cores around
the proposed Toba location and show that a bipolar volcanic
synchronization can be established. Having done this, we still
have not proven to have identified Toba in the ice cores, but
we have increased the likelihood substantially and we have
provided a bipolar volcanic link for the time interval, where
we know from other geological evidence that the Toba erup-
tion must have occurred.
Zielinski et al. (1996) were the first to suggest the position
of the Toba volcanic marker in Greenland at the GI-20 to
GS-20 transition, and further evidence for this location was
provided by the finding of the Toba tephra in the Arabian
www.clim-past.net/9/749/2013/ Clim. Past, 9, 749–766, 2013
754 A. Svensson et al.: Direct linking of Greenland and Antarctic ice cores
Fig. 2. Matching of NGRIP and EDML ice cores around the two 10Be peaks associated with the Laschamp geomagnetic excursion (41.25 ka
b2k). Grey vertical bars indicate NGRIP–EDML match points. The outermost match points (10Be-1 and 10Be-2) indicate the 10Be synchro-
nization provided by Raisbeck et al. (2007) and Loulergue et al. (2007). The three match points (L1–L3) indicate the proposed volcanic
matching. The number of years counted between match points is indicated.
Sea (Schulz et al., 1998). New well-constrained Ar-Ar ages
for the Toba YTT eruption of 73.88± 0.32 ka BP (Storey et
al., 2012) and of 75.0± 0.9 ka BP (Mark et al., 2013) have
become available. Recently, a record of several stalagmites
from caves in the Alps (NALPS), showing a climatic pat-
tern very similar to that of the Greenland ice cores, has been
precisely dated by U-Th (Boch et al., 2011). Although the
NALPS stalagmite record does not contain the onset of GS-
20, it unambiguously brackets the Toba YTT ages between
the onsets of GI-19 and GI-20. The new tephra ages and
the stalagmites thus provide additional and independent ev-
idence for the location of the Toba event close to the on-
set of GS-20 in Greenland. The new YTT ages also agree
within uncertainties to the Greenland GICC05modelext ice
core time scale age of 74.1 ka b2k (before year 2000 AD)
for the onset of GS-20 (Wolff et al., 2010), but the absolute
ice core age is much less well constrained than that of the
NALPS record due to the cumulative error of ice core annual
layer counting.
According to the linking of Greenland and Antarctic ice
cores (Blunier and Brook, 2001; Jouzel et al., 2007; Capron
et al., 2010b), and consistent with the bipolar seesaw hy-
pothesis (Stocker and Johnsen, 2003), the onset of Green-
land GS-20 is associated with the isotopic minimum between
Antarctic AIM-19 and AIM-20 (Parrenin et al., 2012). We
therefore examine this region of the NGRIP and EDML ice
cores for significant volcanic markers (Fig. 3). In NGRIP the
well-known pattern of elevated impurity content in the sta-
dial periods is apparent. The major acidity spikes in the GI-
20 and GS-20 intervals appear, however, within GI-20 close
to the isotopic transition into GS-20 and the most significant
spike in sulphate and conductivity appears at the depth of
2548.01 m right on the transition. In the interstadial, acid-
ity spikes are also visible in ECM and DEP, whereas those
records vanish in stadials where the ice is slightly alkaline
(Wolff et al., 1997). In EDML the most prominent conduc-
tivity, DEP, and ECM spikes in the AIM-19 and AIM-20 in-
tervals appear around the isotopic minimum between the two
and the most significant spike occurs at a depth of 1867.56 m
(Fig. 3).
For layer counting in the potential Toba region we ap-
ply the same counting technique and the same NGRIP and
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A. Svensson et al.: Direct linking of Greenland and Antarctic ice cores 755
Table 2. Depths of Laschamp and Toba match points in Greenland (NGRIP, GISP2, and GRIP) and Antarctic (EDML, EDC, DF-1, DF-2,
Vostok) ice cores. The EDML–EDC matching is from Severi et al. (2007) and Ruth et al. (2007), the EDC–Vostok matching is from Parrenin
et al. (2012), and the Laschamp 10Be match is from Raisbeck et al. (2007) and Loulergue et al. (2007).
NGRIP GRIP GISP2 EDML EDC DF-1 DF-2 Vostok 5G
Units are depth in metres
Laschamp event interval
10Be-1 2110.10 2231.90 1368.40
L1 2111.58 2233.02 2265.61 1369.54
L2 2115.41 2236.21 2268.96 1372.73 738.19
L3 2118.62 2238.90 2271.77 1375.15 739.80
10Be-2 2127.50 2246.20 1383.30
Toba event interval
T1 2547.22 2564.68 2591.10 1866.62 1078.96 1165.83 1035.00
T2 2547.97 2565.18 2591.64 1867.56 1079.72 1167.29 1166.59 1036.00
T3 2550.06 2566.58 2593.03 1869.51 1081.27 1168.29 1038.45
T4 2551.44 2567.46 2593.87 1870.93 1082.29 1170.11 1169.42
T5 2558.43 2572.20 2598.54 1877.57
T6 2558.76 1877.85 1087.94 1175.74 1175.04 1048.35
T7 2564.35 1882.96
T8 2564.70 1883.31
T9 2572.61 2581.30 2607.91 1890.58 1097.96 1185.55 1184.89 1063.00
EDML datasets that were utilized for the Laschamp match-
ing. Compared to Laschamp we are now some 500 m deeper
in both cores, and annual layers are correspondingly thin-
ner. At NGRIP, annual layers in GI-20 have a thickness
of 1.0–1.5 cm that is well resolved in the VS record, but
only marginally resolved in the CFA data (Fig. 4). The ap-
proximately 2-ka-long section in GI-20 is dated in a simi-
lar manner as it was done at shallower depths for sections
of GICC05 (Svensson et al., 2008). In the subsequent stadial
GS-20, however, annual layer thicknesses are below 1 cm and
this period cannot be reliably dated using existing datasets.
The obtained NGRIP layer thickness profile is in very good
agreement with that of the modelled “ss09sea” time scale
(not shown). In EDML, annual layers have comparable layer
thicknesses of 1.0–1.5 cm, which are again well resolved in
VS and marginally resolved in CFA (Fig. 5). The EDML
layer thickness profile obtained from layer counting is in
very good agreement with the time scale of Lemieux-Dudon
et al. (2010) and deviates somewhat from the EDML1 time
scale of Ruth et al. (2007) (Fig. 6).
We now synchronize the two ice cores by identifying a se-
quential pattern of acidity tie points (Fig. 7 and Table 1). The
proposed match has nine match points (referred to as T1–T9),
of which the major NGRIP and EDML acidity spike (T2) is
one. The matching is seen to be particularly well constrained
in the younger part, where four strong unevenly distributed
acidity spikes provide a unique sequence. Interestingly, most
of the EDML acidity spikes in this period apparently have a
counterpart in Greenland, suggesting that they all originate
from low-latitude eruptions.
5 Discussion
5.1 Are there several Toba YTT eruptions?
In the ice core records investigated in the present study, there
are four bipolar acidity spikes (T1–T4) occurring within cen-
turies of the GS-20 onset that are all potential Toba eruption
candidates (Fig. 7). Based on the ice core data alone, we have
no means of determining how many of those events may be
related to Toba. In the study of Storey et al. (2012), the pre-
cise Toba dating of several samples cluster around the age of
73.88±0.32 ka BP, and in the study of Mark et al. (2013) ages
fall in the range of 75.0± 0.9 ka BP, but the temporal resolu-
tion of the Ar-Ar technique does not exclude the existence of
several Toba eruptions separated by centuries.
In the bipolar match presented here, the T2 match point
corresponds to the major acidity spikes in both the NGRIP
and EDML ice cores (Fig. 7), but, interestingly, this is gener-
ally not the case for other ice cores (Fig. 8). In the GISP2
core, the major sulphate spike identified by Zielinski et
al. (1996) at 2591.1 m depth thus corresponds to the match
point T1 of the present study (Table 2). Smaller spikes are
also present in this depth interval of the GISP2 sulphate
record, but the peak corresponding to T1 is definitely dom-
inating. In high depth resolution the GISP2 sulphate con-
centrations at T1 are reaching almost 2000 ppb (Yang et al.,
1996) in comparison to 1200 ppb for NGRIP at T2. In the
nearby GRIP ice core, the overall behaviour of the ECM
record is very similar to that of the GISP2 ECM record, but
the T1 peak is strongly attenuated in GRIP as compared to
GISP2. In the Antarctic EDC ice core the major acidity spike
in the Toba interval is associated with match point T3 of the
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756 A. Svensson et al.: Direct linking of Greenland and Antarctic ice cores
Fig. 3. Overview of NGRIP records around GS-20/GI-20 and of EDML records around AIM-19/20.
present study, although the acidity spikes corresponding to
T1 and T2 are also prominent. In the Dome Fuji (DF) ECM
records, the spike associated with T4 is the strongest, T2
is significant, and T3 is very weak. In the Vostok ice core
ECM profile the T1 peak is the strongest followed by slightly
weaker T2 and T3 peaks (Parrenin et al., 2012). Based on ice
core data there are thus several possible candidates for Toba
eruption(s), and it cannot be excluded that several of them
are related to Toba.
Recently, Sigl et al. (2012) identified some 50 bipolar vol-
canoes over the last two millennia. It is, therefore, not a sur-
prise to find several bipolar events in a similar time span at
around 74 ka BP. The surprising thing is that none of the
events stand out as an exceptional event, considering the
magnitude of the Toba eruption. In the literature the 74 ka BP
Toba eruption is generally regarded as a single event (West-
gate et al., 1998; Zielinski, 2000; Chesner, 2012). If there is
just one Toba eruption, however, then the ice core records
suggest the existence of several other large, unknown, low-
latitude eruptions occurring in the same time window.
Another well-known mega-eruption, the Huckleberry
Ridge Tuff (HRF) “Yellowstone” eruption occurring some
2.1 million years ago was recently determined to consist of
three distinct eruptions separated by some thousands of years
(Ellis et al., 2012). In this case, however, the individual erup-
tion events could also be distinguished by other means, such
as isotopic fingerprinting of the lava flows. In the case of
Toba, the YTT composition is much more homogeneous, and
the potential temporal separation of individual events is hun-
dreds rather than thousands of years. In contrast to the Yel-
lowstone case, it is therefore not possible to decompose sev-
eral potential Toba eruptions based on precise dating alone.
Several closely spaced large Toba eruptions could, however,
help to explain why none of the identified ice core events
are as strong as would be expected from current geological
evidence.
5.2 Age and timing of the Toba event(s)
Assuming that the major Toba eruption can be associated
with one or several of the T1–T4 acidity spikes, the best
Greenland ice core age estimates of the events are those of
the GICC05modelext time scale (Wolff et al., 2010). Those
ages fall in the interval of 74.1–74.5 ka b2k (Table 1). Based
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A. Svensson et al.: Direct linking of Greenland and Antarctic ice cores 757
Fig. 4. Example of layer counting in the NGRIP ice core in GI-20. Notation as in Fig. 1.
Fig. 5. Example of layer counting in the EDML ice core between AIM-19 and AIM-20. Notation as in Fig. 1.
on a 2.5 % extrapolation of the GICC05 counting error up
to 60 ka (Svensson et al., 2008), the absolute uncertainty as-
sociated with the T1–T4 ice core ages is 1.7 ka. Within er-
ror estimates the ice core ages are fully in agreement with
both the precise Ar-Ar dating of Storey et al. (2012) and that
of Mark et al. (2013), as well as with the bracketing of the
Toba event(s) by the European NALPS stalagmites (Boch
et al., 2011). Concerning Antarctic ice core time scales, the
EDML1/EDC3 time scale age for the Toba events T1–T4 is
about 72.6 ka b2k (Ruth et al., 2007; Parrenin et al., 2007),
whereas the more recent Lemieux-Dudon et al. (2010) time
scale give ages of 73.4–73.8 ka b2k with an absolute uncer-
tainty of 2.3 ka. In East Antarctica, the acidity spikes asso-
ciated with the Toba event(s) are likely to be the origin of
a very strong radar sounding isochrone (Fujita et al., 2012;
Cavitte et al., 2013).
As for the exact timing of the Toba candidates with re-
spect to the GI-20 to GS-20 transition, we compare the posi-
tion of the T1–T4 spikes to the NGRIP δ18O and deuterium
excess (d-excess) profiles (Fig. 8). From a δ18O perspective
T3 and T4 both occur within GI-20, whereas T1 and T2
both lie on the transition itself. Following the approach of
Steffensen et al. (2008), we can identify an abrupt shift in
the d-excess close to the T2 event that we associate with a
rapid warming of the precipitation source area for NGRIP.
Within GI-20, d-excess is in “cold source area” mode. Close
to 74 200 yr b2k the d-excess makes a first jump to higher
values and it is “flickering” until the occurrence of T2. From
around 74 100 yr b2k onwards the d-excess remains in “warm
source area” mode. As the d-excess mode jump is asyn-
chronous with the Toba candidates we consider the timing
of the NGRIP source area temperature change and the Toba
events to be unrelated.
5.3 Implication for the bipolar seesaw hypothesis
The present study provides the oldest bipolar ice core syn-
chronization at decadal precision. Because the Toba events
are located right at a major climatic transition in Greenland,
the synchronization allows for a very precise comparison
of inter-hemispheric climate coupling. A detailed compari-
son of the oxygen isotope curves demonstrates an extremely
close coupling between Greenland (NGRIP) and Antarctic
(DF and EDC) climates (Fig. 9). At the GS-20 onset, Antarc-
tic warming starts within a century of Greenland reaching
the cold stadial and, likewise, at the onset of GI-19 and GI-
20 DF and EDC cooling starts immediately after Greenland
has reached its isotopic maximum. Our results thus provide
very strong support for an active bipolar seesaw close to the
MIS4/5 boundary similar to what is observed in other parts of
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758 A. Svensson et al.: Direct linking of Greenland and Antarctic ice cores
Fig. 6. Annual layer thicknesses around the Toba candidates according to layer counting (this work), the EDML1 time scale of Ruth et
al. (2007), and the time scale by Lemieux-Dudon et al. (2010).
Fig. 7. Matching of NGRIP and EDML ice cores at around GI-20 showing the suggested 74 ka BP Toba synchronization. The grey vertical
bars indicate NGRIP – EDML volcanic match points (T1–T9). The number of years counted between match points is indicated.
Clim. Past, 9, 749–766, 2013 www.clim-past.net/9/749/2013/
A. Svensson et al.: Direct linking of Greenland and Antarctic ice cores 759
Fig. 8. Comparing volcanic ice core markers in Greenland (GISP2, GRIP, and NGRIP) and Antarctica (EDML, DF-1, DF-2, EDC) around
the suggested Toba match covering the match points T1–T4. The upper curves show NGRIP δ18O and deuterium excess (d-excess) including
a piecewise linear fit (straight lines). DF-1 and DF-2 refers to Dome Fuji cores 1 and 2, respectively. GISP2 sulphate is from Zielinski et
al. (1996) and GISP2 ECM is from Taylor et al. (1997). GRIP ECM is from Wolff et al. (1997) and DF-1 ECM is from Fujita et al. (2002).
www.clim-past.net/9/749/2013/ Clim. Past, 9, 749–766, 2013
760 A. Svensson et al.: Direct linking of Greenland and Antarctic ice cores
the last glacial (EPICA community members, 2006; Capron
et al., 2010b; Pedro et al., 2011).
The phasing between the Greenland NGRIP and the
Antarctic DF and EDC records reflects the classical imprint
expected from an extended bipolar seesaw mechanism as de-
scribed by Stocker and Johnsen (2003) very well, where an
Atlantic temperature seesaw is connected to a large Southern
Ocean heat reservoir (warming in Antarctica when Green-
land is in a cold state connected to a lowered Atlantic
Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC), and cooling
in Antarctica when Greenland is warm and the AMOC is
increased). The EDML ice core shows a somewhat differ-
ent behaviour. In the EDML record we find a much faster
warming at the onset of GS-21 and 20 which then tends to
level out for the rest of these stadials. This pattern is also
recognized for younger AIM during MIS3 (EPICA commu-
nity members, 2006; Stenni et al., 2010). Taking the bipo-
lar seesaw mechanism at face value, this would imply that
the ocean heat pool relevant for the Atlantic sector of East
Antarctica (EDML), which is warmed by the northward heat
flux deficit across the Atlantic during the stadials, was much
smaller than that relevant for the temperature response in the
Indian Ocean sector (EDC). Since the Antarctic Circumpo-
lar Current, however, is mixed rapidly within decades, this
is highly unlikely and it appears difficult to maintain the re-
quired strong longitudinal temperature gradient in the South-
ern Ocean between the Atlantic and Indian Ocean sector. Ac-
cordingly, the Southern Ocean heat pool should be the same
for both cases.
In contrast, the lower-latitude South Atlantic should re-
spond much faster to changes in the northward heat transport
by the AMOC and should be essentially in anti-phase ac-
cording to the bipolar seesaw concept. While this may have
an effect on the source temperature of the water vapour de-
posited at EDML, and thus on the deuterium excess, it should
not have a strong effect on δ18O and the site temperature at
EDML. In fact, the temperature record for the EDML site
derived from δ18O after correction of source temperature ef-
fects using the deuterium excess (Stenni et al., 2010) shows
essentially the same temporal behaviour during AIM as with-
out correction, i.e. a relatively fast temperature increase at the
onset of the AIM.
Accordingly, we need some other factor that can amplify
the atmospheric warming signal in the δ18O record at the be-
ginning of the AIM at EDML. This could potentially come
about by a threshold in sea ice coverage and here especially
in the extended summer sea ice coverage in the Atlantic sec-
tor during cold conditions. We speculate that a warming in-
duced by the bipolar seesaw mechanism in the Atlantic sec-
tor of the Southern Ocean crosses such a threshold early
during the AIM. A significantly reduced sea ice coverage
then leads to a stronger atmospheric warming signal in this
region. In fact, the EDML sodium record, which has been
used as sea ice indicator, shows minima during the early
stage of the AIM in MIS3 (Fischer et al., 2007a) pointing to
quickly declining sea ice coverage at that time. In contrast,
no such minima are observed in the EDC record (Fischer et
al., 2007a). In this region of the Southern Ocean, summer sea
ice was not significantly expanded even for peak glacial con-
ditions (Gersonde et al., 2005) and thus no such threshold for
the existence of summer sea ice exists. Accordingly, a some-
what different temporal evolution in the atmospheric temper-
ature record of the EDML and EDC ice cores can be accom-
modated in the Bipolar Seesaw concept, if we take a sea ice
amplification effect in the Atlantic sector into account.
5.4 On the climatic impact of the Toba eruption(s)
As pointed out in several studies (e.g. Zielinski, 2000), it is
intriguing that the Toba event(s) occur(s) right at the time
when the Greenland isotopes enter the lowest values of the
entire glacial period (North Greenland Ice Core Project mem-
bers, 2004). Also, in Chinese stalagmites the event corre-
sponding to GS-20 is the isotopically most extreme event in
this part of the last glacial period (Wang et al., 2008). How-
ever, it seems unlikely that a volcanic eruption should have
initiated GS-20 when the initiation of other stadials and inter-
stadials are thought not to be related to large volcanic erup-
tions. Still, there is the possibility that the eruption somehow
contributed to make the GS-20 event a more extreme stadial
period in the Northern Hemisphere, although it is difficult
to imagine a mechanism that can sustain the extremely cold
temperatures over more than a millennium.
In a global perspective, however, the Toba eruption did
not initiate a long-term cold period (Fig. 9). In contrast,
Antarctica experiences a major warming shortly after the
Toba event(s). Concerning the possibility of volcano-related
cooling events of less-than-a-century duration, it is more dif-
ficult to make a clear statement as the temporal resolution of
the ice core water isotopes do not allow discussion of peri-
ods much shorter than that. Right after the T2 event an iso-
topic dip occurs in the EDML and DF ice cores lasting for
about a century (Fig. 9). This event is potentially related to
the T2 event, but we note that there are several other iso-
topic cooling events of similar amplitude occurring in EDML
within AIM-20 that are unrelated to volcanic activity (Fig. 6).
Based on the high-resolution ice core sulphate records, we
know that the high sulphate concentrations associated with
the bipolar volcanic events in this period last for about a
decade. The volcanic sulphate aerosols are thus quickly re-
moved from the atmosphere and any longer-term cooling
impacted by volcanism must, therefore, be associated with
feedback mechanisms that we cannot identify based on ice
core records. A rather short-term climatic impact of the Toba
eruption appears in good agreement with recent model simu-
lations (Robock et al., 2009; Jones et al., 2005; Timmreck et
al., 2012).
The inter-ice-core and inter-proxy variability in the mag-
nitude of the identified Toba-related tie points is surprisingly
high. In particular, the lack of coherence between GRIP and
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A. Svensson et al.: Direct linking of Greenland and Antarctic ice cores 761
Fig. 9. Synchronization of the NGRIP (North Greenland Ice Core Project members, 2004), GISP2 (Grootes and Stuiver, 1997), EDML
(EPICA community members, 2006), EDC (EPICA community members, 2004), and Dome Fuji 1 (Watanabe et al., 2003; Kawamura et
al., 2007) isotopic profiles around GI-20 based on the Toba volcanic match. All records show δ18O except EDC, which is δD. The EDML
and EDC age models are modified from the Lemieux-Dudon et al. (2010) time scales that are shifted in time and linearly stretched by a few
percent to fit the GICC05modelext ages of match points T2 and T9. The Dome Fuji age scale is treated in a similar way, but based on the
time scale of Kawamura et al. (2007). For EDML and Dome Fuji, the thin step curve shows measured high-resolution isotopes, and the thick
curves are running averages.
GISP2 at the T1 and T2 events is quite significant consider-
ing the sites are only located some 30 km apart. The strong
variability suggests a substantial element of local variation
in the magnitude of the volcanic signal during this period
(Wolff et al., 2005).
In Greenland it is generally more challenging to use vol-
canic proxies, such as sulphate and conductivity, to identify
volcanic events during cold climatic periods, such as glacial
stadials. During cold periods the snow accumulation is low,
the flux of dust and calcium sulphate (gypsum) to the ice
increases dramatically (Iizuka et al., 2008), which in turn in-
crease the sulphate and conductivity background levels (see
Fig. 3). The occurrence of the T1 and T2 events right in the
transition zone from the mild GI-20 to the cold GS-20 makes
the peak heights very sensitive to the amount of dust in the
ice, which can vary significantly from site to site on the an-
nual and seasonal scale. This may explain part of the im-
portant difference between T1 and T2 at GRIP and GISP2.
The issues described here do not apply to the warm and cli-
matically stable Holocene, where the magnitude of volcanic
eruptions is likely to carry a more quantitative signal. In gen-
eral, however, it is recommended to compile as many ice core
records as possible in quantitative studies following the ap-
proach of Gao et al. (2008).
6 Conclusions
By application of high-resolution impurity records from the
Greenland NGRIP and the Antarctic EDML ice cores and
by applying existing bipolar ice core synchronizations, it
has been possible to obtain bipolar volcanic matches at the
Laschamp geomagnetic excursion (ca. 41 ka b2k) and at the
Toba mega-eruption (ca. 74 ka b2k).
Using constraints from precise Ar-Ar dating of Toba
tephra and from precise U-Th dating of European stalag-
mites, we are certain that the Toba event occurs close to the
onset of GS-20 in Greenland and between AIM-19 and AIM-
20 in Antarctica. The ice core records show evidence of four
large bipolar eruptions occurring within four centuries close
to the onset of GS-20. However, based on the ice core evi-
dence alone we cannot determine how many of those events
can be attributed to Toba. If there are several Toba eruptions
within this time interval it may explain why none of the bipo-
lar ice core events are as outstanding as would be expected
from the geological evidence.
Our direct bipolar Toba synchronization gives very strong
support for the bipolar seesaw hypothesis acting with no or
little time lag in the MIS4/5 boundary region. At the EDML
site in Dronning Maud Land, the climatic pattern differs
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762 A. Svensson et al.: Direct linking of Greenland and Antarctic ice cores
somewhat from that of the East Antarctic Plateau suggesting
that local effects such as sea ice cover may play an important
role in that region.
Antarctic temperature proxies exclude the possibility of
a more-than-a-century-long global cooling impact of the
eruption(s) as Antarctica warms up shortly after the bipolar
events. One of the ice core Toba candidates is potentially as-
sociated with a century-long Antarctic cooling episode, but
the link is very uncertain. There are several other similar-
looking Antarctic cooling episodes occurring in AIM-20 that
are unrelated to volcanism. The high atmospheric sulphate
loadings associated with the bipolar volcanic events are lim-
ited to about a decade, so any longer-term cooling must in-
volve feedback mechanisms.
The approach taken here to synchronize Greenland and
Antarctic ice cores by volcanic sequence matching has the
potential to be expanded to other periods of the last glacial
period.
Supplementary material related to this article is
available online at: http://www.clim-past.net/9/749/2013/
cp-9-749-2013-supplement.zip.
Acknowledgements. This work is a contribution to the NGRIP ice
core project, which is directed and organized by the Ice and Climate
Research Group at the Niels Bohr Institute, University of Copen-
hagen. It is being supported by funding agencies in Denmark (SNF),
Belgium (FNRS-CFB), France (IFRTP and INSU/CNRS), Ger-
many (AWI), Iceland (RannIs), Japan (MEXT), Sweden (SPRS),
Switzerland (SNF) and the United States of America (NSF).
This work is a contribution to the European Project for Ice
Coring in Antarctica (EPICA), a joint European Science Founda-
tion/European Commission scientific programme, funded by the
EU and by national contributions from Belgium, Denmark, France,
Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland and
the United Kingdom. The main logistic support was provided by
IPEV and PNRA (at Dome C) and AWI (at Dronning Maud Land).
This is EPICA publication no. 289.
Edited by: E. Brook
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