Himalayan hazard cascades – modern and medieval outburst floods in Pokhara, Nepal

Abstract

<title xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML">Abstract</title><p xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xml:lang="en">In May 2012, a sediment‐laden flood along the Seti Khola (= river) caused 72 fatalities and widespread devastation for &gt; 40 km in Pokhara, Nepal's second largest city. The flood was the terminal phase of a hazard cascade that likely began with a major rock‐slope collapse in the Annapurna Massif upstream, followed by intermittent ponding of meltwater and subsequent outburst flooding. Similar hazard cascades have been reported in other mountain belts, but peak discharges for these events have rarely been quantified. We use two hydrodynamic models to simulate the extent and geomorphic impacts of the 2012 flood and attempt to reconstruct the likely water discharge linked to even larger medieval sediment pulses. The latter are reported to have deposited several cubic kilometres of sediment in the Pokhara Valley. The process behind these sediment pulses is debated. We traced evidence of aggradation along the Seti Khola during field surveys and from RapidEye satellite images. We use two steady‐state flood models, HEC‐RAS and ANUGA, and high‐resolution topographic data, to constrain the initial flood discharge with the lowest mismatch between observed and predicted flood extents. We explore the physically plausible range of simplified flood scenarios, from meteorological (1000 m³ s⁻¹) to cataclysmic outburst floods (600,000 m³ s⁻¹). We find that the 2012 flood most likely had a peak discharge of 3700 m³ s⁻¹ in the upper Seti Khola and attenuated to 500 m³ s⁻¹ when arriving in Pokhara city. Simulations of larger outburst floods produce extensive backwater effects in tributary valleys that match with the locations of upstream‐dipping medieval‐age slackwater sediments in several tributaries of the Seti Khola. Our findings are consistent with the notion that the medieval sediment pulses were linked to outburst floods with peak discharges of &gt;50,000 m³ s⁻¹, though discharge may have been an order of magnitude higher.</p>

<p xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xml:lang="en">We reconstruct the magnitudes of outburst floods which constitute the terminal phases of a recent and potentially much larger historic hazard cascades affecting the Pokhara Valley in the Nepal Himalayas. To this end, we calibrate two hydrodynamic models, HEC‐RAS and ANUGA, to sedimentary flood evidence – derived for the catastrophic 2012 flood from RapidEye satellite imagery and for the historic sediment pulses from slackwater deposits in the valley's stratigraphically youngest fill. <boxed-text position="anchor" content-type="graphic" id="esp5539-blkfxd-0001" xml:lang="en"> <graphic position="anchor" id="jats-graphic-1" xlink:href="urn:x-wiley:01979337:media:esp5539:esp5539-toc-0001"> </graphic> </boxed-text></p>